2008 Occasional Papers - AUK

About AUK Occasional Papers:The AUK Occasional Papers publish articles andcontributions concerning the liberal arts education andbusiness in the Gulf or Middle Eastern contexts. Articleson the value of humanistic education in the application tobusiness in the Arabian Gulf region will be considered aswell as contributions on communities or regions of theworld that have strong ties with the Arabian Gulf. Becauseof its interdisciplinary nature, AUK Occasional Papersdoes not accept technical or highly specialized material, nordoes it publish in the areas of administration or training.Editorial Office:P.O. Box 3323, Safat 13034, Kuwait. Email:editor@auk.edu.kwPublished byAmerican University of KuwaitCopyright 2008 AUK Board of Trustees.All rights reserved. No part of this publication may bereproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, orotherwise, without permission in writing from AmericanUniversity of Kuwait.ISSN 1994-6295020510182324334246516180104113139Table of ContentsIntroduction:Establishing a Liberal Arts Tradition in KuwaitMarina TolmachevaThe Impact of a Glass Ceiling on Women in KuwaitAthmar Al-SalemRetaining the Liberal Arts Student:Social and Academic Programming Needs at an“American” University in Kuwait Abigail GrayMemory and Subjectivity among Kuwaiti Youths:Child Witnesses of the 1990 Iraqi Invasion of KuwaitConerly Casey and Juliet DinkhaA Complexity-informed Basis for Social and CulturalChange in the Gulf David LevickWhen Wasta and Liberal Arts Conflict:A Case Study of a Private University Mark J. OlsonRethinking Entrepreneurship:Integration in a Liberal Education ContextM. Nauman Farooqi and Rosemary PolegatoYou Go Girl!: Watching Oprah in KuwaitShaheed Mohammed and Mary QueenHow Far is a Small Truth from a Huge Lie?On Making Corruption an Honor Ralph PalliamA Cross-Cultural Model of Innovation:An Exploratory Study Mourad Dakhli and Wade DanisThe Green Transportation:Does Color Make a Difference in Mobility, Sustainabilityand Environmental Management Philbert SureshIran, the US, and Highly Enriched UraniumShareefa Al-AdwaniMy SCORE, Our MATCH:Community Partnerships for Learning and GrowthChristine and Christopher PiconeEconomic and Cultural Developments in KuwaitCompared to Other Gulf States: A Public OpinionSurvey Mohsen BagniedPanel Discussion: Labor Market Dynamics in Kuwait:A Multi-Perspective Approach Mourad Dakhli153 Contributors1

2Establishing a Liberal ArtsTradition in Kuwait.Marina Tolmacheva / PresidentAmerican University of KuwaitThis volume of AUK® Occasional Papers contains paperspresented at the Second Liberal Arts Conference atAmerican University of Kuwait held in May 2007.With the second conference following upon the2006 AUK conference on Liberal Arts and Business,we aim to establish a tradition of academic discourseon liberal education in the Gulf. Readers will noticethat while the topics of the papers are very diverse,as is appropriate to the scholarship of faculty at aliberal-arts college, the dominant themes are multi- andcross-cultural phenomena and the Kuwait contextof the presented research. Among the conferenceparticipants were also John and Helene Rassias, ofDartmouth College and the Rassias Foundation inHanover, New Hampshire, USA. John Rassias isrecognized world-wide as the creator of the Rassiasmethod of foreign language instruction. AUK is proudto be the first institution in the Gulf region to offerJohn Rassias an opportunity to present to Kuwaitiaudiences his method of building language skillson a foundation of intercultural understanding andcommunication, both important aspects of contemporaryliberal-arts education.The Arabian Gulf education sector appears to be eagerto emulate the American model of higher educationin pursuit of the observed success of Knowledgeeconomies. American institutions of higher educationhave been producing employable graduates, successfulbusinessmen and entrepreneurs, and competentprofessionals, teachers, and researchers who arethe productive force behind the massive amountsof highly sophisticated research, publications, andcreative works. However, historically the ArabianGulf region has been profoundly influenced by theBritish model of higher education which precededthe introduction of the American model. Americanuniversities evolved in a different pattern from theEuropean system, which divided educational andresearch tasks among select universities, professionalinstitutes, and Academies of Sciences.New universities in the Gulf are expected (in Kuwait,required) to have a foreign partner institution ofhigher learning as a guarantor of academic qualityand integrity; international institutional and programaccreditation is expected as well. American partnersare expected of American-model local institutions.Founded in 2004, American University of Kuwaitis an independent, private, equal opportunity, andco-educational institution of higher education dedicatedto offering our students a quality education basedon the American model of a liberal-arts college – suchas Dartmouth College, with whom AUK has acomprehensive Memorandum of Understanding.In 2004 Dartmouth, recognized as one of the topnational American universities and famous for itscommitment to liberal-arts education, hosted aconference titled “The Liberal Education: Deador Alive?” The keynote conference speaker wasRaimond Gaita, a philosophy professor of King’sCollege London. He told an anecdote about theThatcher years when universities felt under siegefrom the market-oriented conservative government.King’s College faculty told a junior governmentminister they had invited that if a university eliminatedits philosophy department, it couldn’t be called auniversity. “That’s OK,” the minister replied. “We’llcall it something else.”The aspiration of the Gulf states to quickly developknowledge-based economies brings into question therole assigned to the institutions and practitioners ofhigher education in achieving this goal. American

higher education is distinguished by co-existenceof Liberal Arts colleges alongside the large researchuniversities. The liberal-arts college model presentsa special challenge in the Gulf region. Liberal Artscolleges in the United States are noted for producinga disproportionately high share of graduate studentsand advanced-degree holders in non-Liberal Artsfields. In the Middle East, and especially in theGulf countries, the concept of liberal-arts educationis truly foreign. It is poorly understood, frequentlymisinterpreted, and virtually untranslatable as aterm standing for a certain philosophy of universityeducation. Even such a basic systemic aspect ofliberal education as putting a scholar-teacher in theclassroom is not readily understood abroad. Liberaleducation is routinely perceived as concomitant withdisregard for research among the faculty and lackof serious professional preparation for students.Currently, American University of Kuwait is theonly institution in the Gulf expressly committedto the liberal-arts mission of college education. Aprivate, Kuwaiti-owned university, AUK integratesthe liberal-arts curriculum in all its degree programs,including the Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science,and Bachelor of Business Administration.The concept of liberal education as a career-buildingfoundation in the sciences, business andentrepreneurship invites a broad intellectual exchange,and this is our primary motivation for developing atradition of academic conferences centered on theconcept of Liberal Arts education in the 21 st century.As we all know, education is about more than subjects,disciplines, and a curriculum; life is not divided into“majors.” Our programs are designed to preparestudents for the contemporary world where criticalthinking, communication skills, and life-long learninghave become imperative. The very transferability ofliberal-arts skills has become a “selling” point foremployers of liberal-arts graduates. These skills,variously named and numbered by the experts,include interpersonal and team-working skills,written and oral communication skills, adaptability tochange, problem-solving skills, and critical, analytical,and creative thinking.In Kuwait and the Middle East, we struggle to makethe concept of Liberal Arts understood, despite thewonderful heritage of medieval Islamic science andphilosophy. The Liberal Arts in the Western traditionwere based on Classical philosophy and the earlydisciplines that shaped the education from Antiquityto the Enlightenment. Strikingly, the ancient Greekterm that was translated by the Romans as “art,”was techne, meaning “skill” rather than “art” in ourcontemporary understanding. Technai eleuteries meantthe “liberal arts” in the sense of knowledge andintellectual qualities required of a Greek citizen inthe age of Athenian democracy. In Rome, and thenin medieval Europe, “Liberal Arts” came to mean thebroad education in a whole range of knowledge notlimited to a certain profession or craft, an educationthat enables a person to gain competency in variousfields and develop a civic consciousness and informedhabits of thought. The usual translation of “LiberalArts” into Arabic as “funoon hurra” (from fann “art”),although correct etymologically, carries for themodern student confusing implications of Fine Arts,of art as craft, or even of science as technique. TheArabic word aadaab, the plural of the singular adab,usually translated as “literature,” fully corresponds tothe plural “Letters” in the phrase al-funoon wa-’l-aadaab“Arts and Letters” or in al-adaab wa-l’-`uloom, “Artsand Sciences.” The phrase “aadaab hurra” for “LiberalArts” better conveys the social and intellectual aspectsof reflective knowledge, of enlightened judgment,and of educated and cultivated qualities required formeaningful participation in society. Still, it appearsto omit the science-education element so oftenoverlooked in interpretations of liberal education.The educational breadth may be better conveyed byusing diraasaat hurra or diraasaat faseeha, another choicefor scholars and native speakers of Arabic to ponder.This interpretive challenge is an important reminder ofthe intellectual complexities faced daily by academicsworking in multi-cultural contexts and environments.In the race for developing the national professionalclasses, rather than building integrated colleges ofArts and Sciences, Gulf countries have often chosento import selected professional programs fromdistinguished American universities. U.S. institutionsare encouraged or invited to bring to the Gulfbusiness, professional or pre-professional programs(with few exceptions, these are undergraduate). Inaffirming AUK’s commitment to the Liberal Artsmission, we often argue that the learning skillsdeveloped through liberal education sometimes arevalued by faculty and employers alike over narrowprofessional knowledge.3

4However, it is important to emphasize that theargument for Liberal Arts does not constitute anargument against professional knowledge. Rather,we aim to avoid narrow-field knowledge and trainingin favor of broad-based knowledge of a full rangeof disciplines. Without knowledge and informedacquaintance with many areas of study, analyticaland critical thinking may descend to the level ofuninformed opinion or biased attitude – occasionallysupported by manipulation of words, numbers orimages -- rather than balanced analysis of facts incontext. By using critical thinking, students learnto examine and evaluate evidence and to distinguishbetween argument, opinion, and fact. They “learnto identify assumptions, evaluate evidence, to reasoncorrectly, and to take responsibility for the conclusionsthat result”.* [*Grinnell College Catalog, ”Education in theLiberal Arts,” at http://www.grinnell.edu/academic/catalog/education/ ].Numerous studies have demonstrated the career-buildingpotential of Liberal-Arts education among Americanand international leaders of the industry, business,and governments.The magazine Business Week reports that chiefexecutives are quick, creative learners who embracechange. We recognize those qualities as the products ofa broadly based liberal education. Yet here in Kuwait,we hear apprehensive predictions that American-modelliberal education will produce unemployed liberal-artsgraduates. Such fears are not totally alien to theUnited States public opinion. In response, W.R.Connor, president of Teagle Foundation and formerpresident of the National Humanities Center, writes:“The greatest problem confronting the liberalarts is not a glut of graduates possessing thesequalities, but the difficulties of developing themmore fully at every stage of education. In that effortwe have perhaps more allies than we might think,including those outside academic who know howmuch they are needed in our society today. Just aswar is too important to be left to the generals, sothe liberal arts cannot be the exclusive prerogativeof those of us in academia. Thoughtful, committedpeople from outside academia – we all know some ofthem – can help keep us focused on the importanceof these skills of freedom in this time of radical,unpredictable change.”[* W.R. Connor, “Liberal Arts Education in theTwenty-First century.” AALE Occasional Papers inLiberal Education #2 (Chapel Hill, NC: AmericanAcademy for Liberal Education, 2000, p.8).]AUK faculty work hard to create a caring environmentwhere every aspect of students’ development getsattention and support. To achieve positive studentlearning outcomes, our faculty incorporate a wide rangeof educational practices into classroom instructionand mentoring. Moreover, our liberal-arts-orientededucational mission calls for a positive connectionbetween teaching and scholarly activity. AUK LiberalArts conferences provide a forum for our internationalfaculty to share their expertise and brings to theuniversity their experience and wisdom and theirpassion for educating students “broadly and liberally.”For successful implementation of the Americanmodel in non-American environment, educatorsand higher-education authorities need to be clearabout the salient features of existing local systemsof education, the salient features of American highereducation, where the gaps and differences are andhow they impact the outcomes. AUK has taken thelead in developing an international dialog on thesubject of Liberal Arts, liberal education, and thepaths of higher education development in the Gulf.The first two Liberal Arts conferences held on theAUK Salmiya campus in Kuwait were followed by aninternational meeting at the Rockefeller FoundationConference Center in Bellagio, Italy in August 2007.The third AUK conference, themed Liberal ArtsEducation and Tomorrow’s Professional (May 2008),will be followed in 2009 by a high-level internationalconference in Kuwait which will bring togetherexperts, decision-makers, and practitioners of highereducation across the region. Research contributionsand scholarly discussion surrounding these eventswill be published in edited collections and subsequentvolumes of the AUK Occasional Papers.

The Impact of a Glass Ceilingon Women in KuwaitAthmar Al-SalemAbstractThe aim of this research was to determine whether or nota glass ceiling exists in Kuwait, or - in other words - whetheror not women in Kuwait are being prevented fromgetting promoted to top corporate positions. This wasdone through a survey of the makeup of the managerialhierarchies of several business organizations in Kuwait.As a close evaluation of our observations indicated, theremay indeed be a glass ceiling in Kuwait.The data used in this study was collected by students whoconducted interviews with various managers as part ofan assignment for an introductory management course.Initial data collection was supplemented with follow-upinterviews with executives at each study location in orderto confirm the accuracy of the data initially collectedand to pose further questions relating to a potential glassceiling at each workplace. The initial data collected wasthen collated and the common responses obtained weresummarized in a report.The analysis of the answers obtained through this studyis the very core of this report, as it furnishes various hintsabout the existence or absence of a glass ceiling in thecountry. Indeed, the issues identified and discussed in thisreport serve as an important basis for a more in-depthunderstanding of local culture and how it influencesmanagement, and their implications may well extend tothe other Gulf States and much of the Middle East.IntroductionThe term “glass ceiling” most commonly refers to thecondition in which top-level management in businessesis dominated by men. A "ceiling" is suggested becausewomen are seen as limited in how far they can advanceup organizational ranks, and the ceiling is linked to aglassy barrier because the various limitations impeding thepromotion of women to the upper part of the corporateladder are not as apparent.It is important to note here that the "glass ceiling" isdistinguished from formal barriers to advancement, suchas education or experience requirements. Furthermore,when the meaning conveyed by this term is extended toother groups, such as racial or ethnic minorities, it is usuallymade with direct or indirect reference to Gender. 1 Andwhile the “glass ceiling” term is most often used to referto women's access to upper management, it also refers tothe general tendency for women to be underrepresentedat higher levels of the occupational hierarchy. 2The Glass Ceiling in KuwaitLike many modern trends and notions in the field of seniormanagement, the term “glass ceiling” is not widely knownin Kuwait. Seldom can anyone find an article in a Kuwaitinewspaper speaking about management in general, letalone specific managerial-related terms. Therefore, aninterest in the academic meaning of terms related tomanagement and marketing in general is quite lacking inKuwait, and that is precisely why it is often difficult for oneto prove something as either prevailing in Kuwait or not.What makes a study of the “glass ceiling” term in Kuwaiteven more challenging is the fact that the promotionof women to top managers is generally related to theirexperience and cannot easily be judged in Kuwait, wherewomen only started contributing to the workforce withinthe last 25 years. The part of the Kuwaiti labor forceconsisting of women tends to be concentrated within thefields of government education and health care, whichmeans that not enough managerial experience has beengained by females in the country over the past years.In an effort to unravel the glass ceiling mystery in Kuwait,articles on the subject were searched for, yet barely anycould be found. The only article that actually tackled thetopic to a certain extent was found in “Khaleej TimesOnline”, and it consisted of a long discussion of theterm as it applies in only one of the Gulf CooperationCouncil countries – the United Arab Emirates. 3 It listedexamples of different women from the United ArabEmirates, while completely ignoring the other countriesin the G.C.C. region. In fact, the writer of the article didnot even attempt to clearly define the term but, instead,merely provided the reader with hints about the topic inquestion. Apart from this exception, one generally cannotfind articles discussing this particular subject in the G.C.C.media in general and the Kuwaiti media in particular.51 2 3

6Hence, in order to proceed with this research and to gainsome insight into how people generally perceive the statusof female managers in the Kuwaiti corporate world, theonly option was to resort to questionnaires addressing the“glass ceiling” term. A random sample population waschosen for this study, the results that were accumulatedhave reflected the Kuwaiti population’s perception of theglass ceiling in a way that might enable one to conclude theexistence of the phenomenon of glass ceiling in Kuwait.In Kuwait, the glass ceiling is evident in virtually allcompanies and government sectors. Most companiesin Kuwait are run by men, except for a few limitedcompanies that are run by women. Among the thingsthat were done to survey public opinion on the term athand was to ask interviewees about the number of malesworking in their companies. Then, the interviewees wereasked about the number of female managers working intheir company in order to determine the extent to whichthe company members, given an expectedly large numberof males working as juniors, would prefer to have a femalemanager working with them. Finally, questions were posedto determine whether the company, when advertisingfor managerial posts, used statements implying that itwas seeking males only, or that it preferred males. Theresearch was done in discretion, so as not to influence theinterviewees’ responses, and great care was taken to detectany signs of a glass ceiling in the process, even when thesubjects did not in any way hint to its presence.Eventually, several important and interesting conclusionswere drawn from the results accumulated in this study.First, it was found that, although more than half of theKuwaiti population consists of expatriates, not many ofthe latter are females who could be found in managerialpositions. Second, it turned out that the majority of themanagers that were interviewed in this study did not knowthe meaning of the term ‘glass ceiling’, even though the vastmajority of companies in Kuwait apply foreign standardsand tend to have both regional and foreign expansion plans.Yet, it is worth noting perhaps that these same managerswere altogether unclear about the presence or absence ofany discrimination in the recruitment or promotion ofwomen to top management or senior positions in theircompanies. The third and most important result thatwas found is that most of the subjects did not know thenumber of female managers in their company; the onlything they knew for sure was that females were presentin significantly lower numbers than males. Consideringthe notably low numbers of female managers that wereencountered in the vast majority of companies studied,it seems quite surprising that the term was not betterrecognized by the people working in these companies.When asked about whether or not they tend to advertisefor male managers rather than female managers, nearlyall of the companies studied asserted that they do notpublish gender-biased ads, stating that this tendencyused to be the case in the past, but not nowadays. Thismight at first lead one to infer a growing awareness ofthe importance of eliminating discrimination betweenmale and female managers in Kuwait; yet, the majorityof these same companies admitted to hiring mostly malemanagers for junior positions, stating that their employeesgenerally did not feel comfortable working with people ofthe opposite gender. Many male employees, for example,did not like taking orders from female managers, andcherished having the freedom to move around and totravel as and when they please.It is important to note here that the glass ceiling doesnot merely relate to the recruitment and appointment ofmanagers, but manifests itself in various forms. Anotherform of the glass ceiling, for example, is the discriminationin salaries between female and male managers in Kuwait.Sadly enough, the majority of women managers that wereinterviewed as part of this study agreed that there is indeeddiscrimination in salaries between men and women, eventhough it differ in its degree from company to company.A manager at a prominent company in Kuwait mentionedthat she herself happened to be in a position where hersalary value is often manipulated by her superiors - oftenfrom month to month.Ultimately, what made this research on the glass ceilingin Kuwait especially challenging is the fact that, althoughdiscrimination between males and females in the workplaceused to be overt in the old days, such discrimination tendsto be somewhat less evident nowadays. At one point, it wasnot acceptable in Kuwaiti society for a woman to travelalone or to work, and women in general were expected toabide by certain traditions, values and rules that tend tobe conservative in nature. Eventually, some of these ruleswere broken in the private sector, and more quickly so thanin the government sector, due to the greater flexibility ofthe private sector. This happened because, over the years,many educated women faced aggravation and hostility inthe workplace in a way that often forced them to quit andestablish their own company. As a result, new companieswere established in Kuwait that, in turn, gave more and

more women a chance to flourish in the Kuwaiti businessworld. Hence, although various signs of a glass ceiling weredetected in the vast majority of companies studied in thisresearch, a few companies were encountered that showeda great support of and dependency on female managers.One such company is Global Investment House. 4Global is a company whose managerial model andhierarchy clearly contradict the presence of a glass ceiling.For one thing, the Vice Chairman and managing Directorof the company is Mrs. Maha Khaled Al-Ghunaim 5 ,a remarkable businesswoman who, as one source putsit, has managed to build a highly admirable reputationfor herself that extends far beyond the Arab businesscommunity. She is the leading asset of the company andthe person who takes care of the management team aswell as all other departments. At Global, the qualificationsof job applicants - rather than their gender - are takeninto account when employment is involved. Furthermore,everyone is treated equally in the company, and salaries,increments, as well as bonuses are distributed accordingto job position alone.Indeed, Mrs. Al-Ghunaim’s success story - which startedless than 6 years ago upon her decision to start her owncorporation 6 – clearly demonstrates that women canindeed make it to top management positions and excelas managers if they possess enough determination. LikeMrs. Al-Ghunaim, there are several other distinguishedwomen that were able to overcome the glass ceiling withtheir determination and hard work and make it to the topof the corporate ladder. These include Sheikha KhaledAl-Bahar 7 , the general manager of the National Bank ofKuwait, and Sara Akbar 8 from the Kuwait Oil Company.Kuwaiti women throughout much of history have hadto fight for their rights to work, travel, and vote withina dominant male society. After they were granted theright to vote in 2006, Kuwait witnessed the appointmentof its first female minister, Dr. Masouma Al-Mubarak. 9Even though women feel that they are moving forwardin their efforts to claim their rights, many women are stilldenied certain positions that the government feels thatthey cannot handle.In my opinion, men and women are alike, especially inbusiness, but they differ in their ability to implement andadapt to a job or a business in a way that makes theirpresence noticeable. After the liberation of Kuwait, Iwent for an interview to one of the largest companiesin Kuwait. I was interviewed by two male managers;during the interview, I experienced a great deal of tensionand negative sensations, and I kept wondering what thesource of this feeling was. I soon came to realize that myeducation, experience, and technical knowledge, as well asmy being a female Kuwaiti, was too much to deal with forsome. The interview lasted for 20 minutes and as I wasleaving, one of the directors escorted me to the door andbluntly informed me that I was overqualified for the joband could cause a threat to any one of them.Therefore, it is very common in Kuwait for a womannot to be promoted to a higher position just becauseshe is a woman. A lot of work in Kuwait is done in the“Diwaniya”, a daily male ritual where men gather at nightin a special meeting room for social and family contactpurposes. With time, the Diwaniya evolved into a formof business contact through which big business deals aremade. Since women are not allowed into the Diwaniya,top managers tend to feel that they will somehow lose inthe long run if they were to hire female managers - evenif the female applicants qualify for the job.Although many indicators of a glass ceiling are presentin Kuwait, it is important to note that the glass ceilingphenomenon extends to many important businessinstitutions around the world, including ones in advancedand developed countries. Empirical evidence for theglass ceiling in the United States is rather widespread, 10for example, and this seems especially true if one looksat the Fortune 500 companies and their ratio of femaleto male CEOs. According to an article released recentlyin 2007, “as of 2005, only eight Fortune 500 companieshave women CEOs or presidents, and 67 of those 50074 5 6 7 8 9

8companies don't have any women corporate officers.” 11This pattern is also evident in Europe, where a surveyconducted by the European Professional Women'sNetwork in 2006 found women to constitute only 8.5 percent of corporate boardroom seats in Europe. 12In Kuwait and the G.C.C., the glass ceiling is certainlyno exception to the general trend. Although femalesand males in Kuwait do enjoy equal opportunities foreducation, in most cases such educational opportunitiesare offered to them for free. Thus, it is only when theyenter the workforce that gender discrimination becomesapparent. This discrimination is surprising for a numberof reasons. First, it is a known fact that most womenin Kuwait graduate from university with a much higherGrade Point Average than do their male colleagues.Second, many women pursue higher levels of educationand academic qualifications than do men, and this maybe due in part to the boundaries imposed on them bylocal culture. Such boundaries allow women less freedomto travel and to pursue challenging opportunities, and sothey focus on their education. I personally believe thatthis is the main reason why most organizations prefer tohire male managers, and with time I have also realized thatit is harder for females to reach high managerial positionsbecause of our society’s perspective of working women.Ultimately, these difficulties which women face helpeddevelop the glass ceiling in Kuwait.Now, one might wonder just how the glass ceiling maybe eliminated in Kuwait and around the world. In myopinion, companies must try and embrace the open doorpolicy if they are to achieve this end. Top managers shouldsend a clear message to all managers and supervisors thatthe company will not tolerate any form of discriminationbased on gender. Moreover, all employees should have theright to see their evaluation, to sign it, and to challenge ifthey feel necessary. Indeed, all of these changes are of vitalimportance, especially considering that that a clear codeof conduct in the workplace is quite lacking in Kuwait. 13In spite of all the challenges, Kuwaiti women today areeager to pursue a career in management because theybelieve that they are capable of planning, organizing,leading, and controlling. Most importantly, they recognizethat being a manager is a highly rewarding opportunityand a great learning experience for any women or man. 14ConclusionAlmost everyone interviewed as part of this study feltthat a glass ceiling exists in Kuwait in general and in thegovernment sector especially. That is why, in my opinion,the government sector is very ineffective in Kuwait. Theglass ceiling phenomenon in Kuwait can be summarizedby the word "WASTA", and not having the right"WASTA" can definitely be a barrier for promotion totop corporate levels. 15 Furthermore, the majority of theobservations made in this study confirm the prevalenceof a stereotypical attitude towards women – one thatreflects a general lack of acceptance, and even resistance.Yet, those who, like Mrs. Maha Al-Ghunaim, do makeit to the top of the managerial hierarchy often makeoutstanding and lasting contributions to managementand serve as the much-needed role models of femininesuccess in the Arab world today. And it may be truethat, at the present time, there are not enough womenmanagers here in Kuwait; yet, with the country’s boomingeconomy and some great strides being made in the areaof development, the number of women promoted to topmanagement positions may well rise higher than any glassceiling which may exist at present.During the past five years, there has been an increase inthe number of women in managerial positions, and thishas been true not only in Kuwait but also in countrieslike the United States, something that might provide somehope that the glass ceiling will decrease with time andawareness, especially since people are becoming more andmore aware of this problem.The best way to prevent any unfair practices or biaswhen it comes to promotion – which are not uncommonworldwide, let alone in Kuwait - is to clearly list thequalifications required for one, male or female, toreceive promotion, and to make these criteria public toall employees to ensure that all managers are given anequal chance and that promotion decisions are not madeaccording to supervisors’ subjective preferences.So, in the end, yes there are obstacles in Kuwait that preventwomen from being promoted, especially in governmentsector, but less so in the private sector; yet, ultimately, onemust take to not be merely concerned with gender whenlooking at the top of the corporate ladder, but also to11 12 13

consider other factors such as the extent of a manager’scompetence and determination. Indeed, as the examples ofvarious successful female managers previously mentionedsuggest, an efficient and determined enough manager canprove herself in spite of all the obstacles in a way thatsimply cannot be ignored.In summary, first, it was found that, although more thanhalf of the Kuwaiti population consists of expatriates,not many of the latter are females who could be foundin managerial positions. Second, it turned out that themajority of the managers that were interviewed in thisstudy did not know the meaning of the term ‘glassceiling’, even though the vast majority of companiesin Kuwait apply foreign standards and tend to haveboth regional and foreign expansion plans. Yet, it isworth noting perhaps that these same managers werealtogether unclear about the presence or absence ofany discrimination in the recruitment or promotion ofwomen to top management or senior positions in theircompanies. The third and most important result thatwas found is that most of the subjects did not know thenumber of female managers in their company; the onlything they knew for sure was that females were presentin significantly lower numbers than males. Consideringthe notably low numbers of female managers that wereencountered in the vast majority of companies studied,it seems quite surprising that the term was not betterrecognized by the people working in these companies.References1. Al- Salem, Al-Mutairi, Cripps. Cross Cultural Perspectiveson the Work Ethics: Diversity, Discrimination and Ethics inKuwait. Jan 14,20062. Jones/George. Essentials of Contemporary Management,2/e, McGraw-Hill.3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 9

10Retaining the LiberalArts Student: Social andAcademic ProgrammingNeeds at an “American”University in KuwaitAbigail GrayAt a time when student numbers are down at universities throughoutthe Middle East, and more specifically, given the competitive natureof the academic market in Kuwait, an examination of the latesttrends in student retention and attrition is not only apropos, butvital to improving an institution’s retentive power. Student retentionis the responsibility of the entire university community (Powell,2003). Students who are satisfied with the formal and informalacademic and social systems in a college or university tend to stay inschool. To the contrary, students who have negative interactions andexperiences tend to become disillusioned with college, withdraw fromtheir peers and faculty members, and ultimately leave the institution(Tinto, 1987). The ability to benchmark based on best practicesthat colleges and universities are using to retain good students isnot only critical to a universities continued success, but may alsoprovide an early warning system for under-represented groups andprofessions—providing a mechanism to improve the productivecapacity and leadership preparedness of a nation operating within ahighly competitive global marketplace.This study triangulates a meta-analytical approach to the literatureon college student retention with student surveys and faculty interviewsat a small, liberal arts university in the Middle East. Numerousstudies demonstrate that finance is the key reason why students do notenter or withdraw from their full time and part time higher educationcourses. Although exit data at the selected university identified“financial” as the primary reason that Spring 2006 admits chosenot to enroll, further examination indicates that poor faculty-studentrelations, lack of facilities, course load, and poor time managementskills are key considerations in determining if a student choosesto continue at the university or not. In addition, although bothhigh student involvement in academic life on campus and facultyparticipation in campus programs and events are proven ways to retainstudents, current enrollees reported a lack of sufficient academic andsocial activities on campus, a noticeable lack of faculty participationin campus events, and only a 60% overall student satisfaction rate.Recommendations for increasing student retention rates and facilitatingsuccessful degree completion are discussed. Recommendations includethe development of numerous practical and proven student-centeredretention and effective learning strategies. Recommendations include,but are not limited to, a re-examination of the degree of academicpreparedness of students transitioning from part time instructors’to full time instructors’ courses; mandatory student advising priorto course registration; enhanced tutoring and counseling services;enhanced multimedia and computer-based learning approaches;attention to recreational, health, and wellness needs; increasednumber of program offerings; increased on-line course offerings; amore extensive and mandatory orientation program for freshmen; asecond-year experience aimed at retaining students; more scholarshipopportunities, especially for students who demonstrate significantimprovement in their grade point average by their second year; better,increased, and more innovative university advertising platforms; andincreased enforcement of university standards that promote studentresponsibility for their own actions.IntroductionThe successful completion of a college degree in today’ssociety is perceived as paramount to individual achievement(Pritchard and Wilson, 2003). The issues of studentretention, attrition, and persistence have continued togrow in importance in higher education literature andpractice. Early studies focused on the characteristics ofstudents that did not persist (Astin, 1997), and providedevidence for the need for higher admission standards andhigh quality controls in recruitment processes. In the early1970’s, the focus shifted to the reasons students did or didnot persist, and the strategies universities could employ toretain students.College student retention studies span the globe. In theinternational educational community, an institution’sretention rate can influence its ranking in college guides,the implication being, “the higher the retention rate, thehigher the quality of education” (Astin, 1993). In theUS, retention rates may serve as a benchmark for stateallocated funding (Borrego, 2002). In Britain, recentgovernment policies to widen access to higher education,increase student numbers rapidly and change mechanismsraised concerns about maintaining university standards(Rickinson & Rutherford, 1995). McInnis et al (2000a)found, in a recent study of first-year on-campus studentsin Australia that many considered themselves not wellprepared, unmotivated to study, and did not get satisfactionfrom their participation in study. In addition, McInnisfound that dissatisfaction with the academic quality ofstudents rose from 18% in 1978 to 50% in 2000.Indeed, some argue, as Robert Lee Mahon doesin “Rethinking Retention,” (2003), “When you’re

academically unprepared…you must be prepared to workhard to compensate. Failure to do so should mean failureto stay the course.” He goes on to say, “Our job is notto retain, but to retrain. And if our basic trainees areunwilling or unable to accept the training, then we can’tlet them go any further.”When And How Do They Drop Out?Research consistently indicates that college students whodrop out usually do so by the time they finish their firstyear (Noel, Levitz, and Saluri, 1985). (Note: Drop-outsusually denote, in the literature, students who permanentlyleft the institution because they were academically underprepared.However, many drop-outs are academicallyprepared and successful, but the institution failed to meettheir needs and expectations.) According to AmericanCollege Testing (ACT), one in every four students leavescollege before completing the sophomore year. What’smore, nearly half of all freshmen will either drop outbefore getting their degree, or complete their collegeeducation elsewhere (Whitbourne, 2002).According to “Learning Slope” (1991), published in PolicyPerspectives, the most critical stage of vulnerability forstudent attrition continues to be the first year of college atall types of higher education institutions, including thosethat are highly selective. More than half of all studentswho withdraw from college do so during their first year(Consortium of Student Retention Data Exchange, 1999),resulting in a first year attrition rate of more than 25% at4-year institutions (ACT, 2001).According to nationally recognized retention scholarVincent Tinto, the majority of new students enteringhigher education leave their initial college of choicewithout completing a degree (Tinto, 1993). Tinto (1987)found that a full 57% of college students leave their firstcollege choice without receiving a degree, and 47% dropout all together, never completing a degree. As Tintoexplains:“Though the intentions and commitment with whichindividuals enter college matter, what goes on after entrymatters more. It is the daily interaction of the personwith other members of the college in both formal andinformal academic and social domains of the college andthe person’s perception or evaluation of the character ofthose interactions that in large measure determines thedecisions as to staying or leaving. It is in this sense thatmost departures are voluntary. Student retention is at leastas much a function of institutional behavior as it is ofstudent behavior (Tinto, 1987, p. 127, 177).It can be argued, that AUK students are not currentlysatisfied with how the university is “behaving.” Accordingto Carl Parker (1997), in his article “Making RetentionWork,” if we are truly to assist students in their questfor academic success, then the university must becomebarrier free, reducing the risk of failure. As Parkersuggests, institutions must respond to issues surroundingacademic preparation and conduct on-going audits of theinstitutional environment. As he suggests, the goal is createa campus atmosphere where, “students are presented witha mandate to succeed rather than the right to fail” (Parker,1997, para. 3). Arguably, AUK is an environment that hasachieved, in its youth, only the latter thus far.Why They Drop Out?According to Vincent Tinto, chair of the HigherEducation Program at Syracuse University in New York,a large number of students are ill-equipped for thechallenges of college. In his (1987) book “IncreasingStudent Retention,” he identifies a number of factors thatcontribute to drop-outs and stop-outs, to include academicdifficulty, uncertainty, incongruity, isolation, adjustmentproblems, lack or clear academic goals, lack of clear careergoals, lack of commitment, and poor integration into thecollege environment.Rickinson and Rutherford (1995) found that students whowithdrew in the first term identified three main reasons forwithdrawal: (1) feelings of being unprepared academically,(2) feelings of being unprepared emotionally, and (3)welfare problems (e.g., financial, family responsibilities).In addition, they found that ‘low risk’ students were ableto use both departmental and central support systemsappropriately, whereas ‘at risk’ students did not seek helpfrom any source. According to the authors, “this supportsthe theory that lack of commitment and coping resourcesare linked. The ability to identify difficulties, and seek anduse appropriate help, signifies the possession of copingresources” (para.18).Whitbourne (2002) lists six common reasons why studentsare not retained, to include (1) too much fun, (2)not joining in, (3) academic unpreparedness, (4) lackof funds, (5) choosing the wrong major, and (6) firstgeneration student challenges. On the latter, he explainsthat first generation students, who are often minorities, aremore likely to drop out before educational completion.11

12Terenzini et al (1996) also identified several reasonswhy student drop out, to include lack of finances, poorstudent-institution fit, changing academic or career goals,personal circumstances, failure by the institution to createan environment conducive to the individuals learning andeducational needs, inability to manage normal school work,inability to assimilate with the student population, lack ofmotivation to do well in school, lack of understandingof the importance of education, inability to apply theoryto practical problems, lack of appropriate role modelsor mentors in the academic environment, and a sense ofbeing overwhelmed and stressed by the transition fromhigh school to college life.Taylor and Bedford (2004), in their article, “StaffPerceptions of Factors Related to Non-completionin Higher Education,” suggest that the best availablesummary of factors that may have negative effects onstudent completion is as follows:Wrong choice of program;Poor quality of the student experience;Inability to cope with the demands of the program;Unhappiness with the social environment;Matters related to financial need;Dissatisfaction with aspects of institutional provisionProblems with relationships and finance;Pressure of work (academic and employment);Learning efficiency (students’ general cognitive skills);Students self-efficacy (self-reliance, locus of control, andself-directedness);Quality of instruction (students perceptions of the qualityof teaching);Course difficulty in relation to academic support andcounseling available;Interaction with faculty and staff;Student’s goal commitment (planning skills; motivation);Time for learning (students’ planning and organizing oftheir study programs)(Weston, 1998; Yorke, 1999)Whose Problem Is Retention?According to Dr. Joe Lee, President of Alabama StateUniversity, “retention is the responsibility of the entireuniversity” (para. 12). For those hesitant to embrace thisperspective, think:(1) In terms of promoting fiscal solvency to a universityoperating in the red. Retention efforts make good businesssense. Student recruitment efforts require substantialinstitutional expenditures. By comparison, retentioninitiatives are estimated to be 3-5 times more cost effectivethan ongoing recruitment efforts; for example, the costof recruiting one new student approximates the cost ofretaining 3-5 enrolled students (Noel, Levitz, & Saluri, 1985).(2) In terms of examining assessment outcomes. Outcomesassessment has received visible attention at AUK. Manyof AUK’s desired outcomes are difficult to measure prior topersistence to graduation or beyond: self-awareness, personalgrowth, critical thinking, effective communication, respectfor diversity, and moral and ethical responsibility insociety. By comparison, student retention is an assessmentoutcome that can be accurately measured and quantified,can serve as a primary outcome measure, and can be usedto make meaningful interpretations of other assessedoutcomes (Cuseo, 2003).Factors Influencing Retention:Qualitative And EmotionalQualitativeRickinson and Rutherford (1995), in “Increasing UndergraduateRetention Rates” found that two main factors influencedstudent retention rates: (1) the degree to which studentsfelt prepared, both academically and emotionally, forthe transition to the university, and (2) the availabilityof appropriate academic and personal support at thetransition. Factors influencing retention include, but arenot limited to, major field of study, institutional size,high school class rank, prep class enrollment, on or offcampus employment, and late application (Astin, 1984,1997; Reisberg, 1999; and Sydow, 1998).Qualitative factors such as gender (Sanders, 1998),educational level of parents (Ting and Robinson, 1998;Pritchard and Wilson, 2003), high school GPA (Tobey,1997), ACT/SAT scores (Foster, 1998), and more havebeen associated with retention rates. For example, Astin etal (1987), found that women seem to have higher retentionrates in 4-year degree completion data; however, men tendto have higher retention rates when examining data ofstudents who persist over time (e.g., five years and beyond).As cited in the article “BCC Instructor Conducts StudentRetention Study,” (2005) Thornton focuses on at-riskstudent issues such as personality, distance form campus,transportation, and day care suggesting that at-risk studentsmust be identified early and intervention strategiesimplemented.

EmotionalSignificant variations in academic success levels remain.Szulecka, Springett, and DePauw (1997) have suggestedthat the major causes of attrition of first year collegestudents are emotional rather than academic factors.Brooks and Dubois likewise found that emotional factorsexerted a strong influence on how well students adjusted totheir first year experience (1995). Leafgran (1989) suggeststhat students who are emotionally and socially healthyhave a greater chance to succeed in college. Pritchard andWilson (2003) found that student’s emotional health wassignificantly related to GPA regardless of gender. Thisis particularly important given the fact that recent studiesshow a dramatic increase in the levels of stress experiencedby college students over the last 30 years (Sax, 1997).While self-confidence, self-control, achievementorientation, perfectionism, and other personalityvariables have been found to be closely linked to collegeadjustment and retention, other personality variables aremore closely linked to attrition. For example, studentswho are more anxious are more likely to drop-out (Tobey,1997). However, the jury is still out on introversion andextraversion. While some studies find that introverts havethe highest retention rates (Spann, Newman, & Matthews,1991), others suggest that extraverts tend to adjust betterto college life (Searle & Ward, 1990) and perform higheracademically (Eysenck & Cookson, 1969; Irfani, 1978).The Pritchard and Wilson (2003) study on “UsingEmotional and Social Factors to Predict Student Success,”found that students who indicated their intent to drop outreported more fatigue and had lower self esteem thantheir peers. On the other hand, students who intended tostay in college used more positive coping skills and weremore likely to accept when they could not change thestressor. Pritchard and Wilson therefore suggest that “theability to deal successfully with the multitude of emotionalstresses encountered in college life appeared to be animportant factor in student retention” (p. 25). This is notnew information. In 1970, Harvard Professor W.G. Perryidentified the criticality of providing the optimum balanceof challenge and security at each new learning stage ina series on interviews with Harvard students. Perryexamined the relationship between task learning and largercontext about them, and the phases of development fromsimplistic thinking to mature commitment. Perry’s studyfound that if the threat of a new experience/learning is toooverwhelming, students cope with the anxiety by avoidingthe challenge (in Rickinson and Rutherford, 1995).How To Improve RetentionAccording to Parker (1997), the critical factors thatimprove retention include positive faculty relations,community relations, leadership, organizational services,orientation programs, student support classes andservices, recruitment planning, academic interventionservices, campus climate, and award programs (Parker,1997, para. 11). This is supported by Whitbourne (2002),who prioritized balancing socializing and studying,joining campus activities, seeking assistance and help,looking beyond financial issues to real problems social oracademic acclimation, remaining an “undecided” majorduring the first year of college, and seeking universitiesthat specifically focus on first generation and/or minoritystudent affairs (Whitbourne, 2002).In “New Approach to Curb Low-Retention Rates,” Powell(2003) identifies proven student retention techniques suchas the availability of tutors, midterm faculty evaluations,and an early warning system. In an effort to curb lowretention rates Alabama State University recentlyimplemented a writing across the curriculum program,and increased attention to student accountability measuressuch as class attendance and assignment completion.A 1996 study of 163 community colleges across the UnitedStates with enrollments of more than 5,000 studentsexamined strategies used to recruit, retain, and graduateminority students. The research indicated that studentsuccess is highest when retention efforts are coordinatedby a centralized office or person, making it visible andgiving it a sense of purpose (cited in Parker, 1997, para. 4).A number of authors call for mentoring programsto improve the institutions retentive power. Mentorprograms enable students to see successful studentsand staff, expose students to strategies for success, andprovide the confidence and support that some studentsneed to succeed. (Example: AUK’s new PALS program,a student peer tutoring and advising program.)Why They Work? Interaction And ConnectednessAttracting and recruiting incoming students is costly.Universities are working hard, therefore, to retain thestudent they have. One means of doing this is to ensurethat students feel connected to the institution and share asense of belonging to the university community.13

14In Astin’s (1997) article, “What Matters Most in Colleges:Four Critical Years” and later in his (1993) article, “WhatMatters Most in College: Four Critical Years Revisited,”he found that the retention of students is greatly affectedby the level and quality of their interactions with peers,faculty, and staff. Nutt (2003) in his article “AcademicAdvising and Student Retention and Persistence” alsoconcludes that retention can be highly affected byenhancing student interaction with campus personnel.The development of interpersonal relationships withpeers is critically important for student success (Upcraft,1982, 1985). Tinto (1987) found that “incongruence withone’s student peers proves to be a particularly importantelement in voluntary departure” (p. 57).Rendon (1995) found two critical factors in student’sdecisions to persist: (1) successfully making the transitionto college aided by initial and extended orientationand advisement programs and (2) making positiveconnections with college personnel during their first termof enrollment. Noel (1985) stated:“It is the people who come face to face with students on aregular basis who provide the positive growth experiencesfor students that enable them to identify their goals andtalents and learn how to put them to use. The caringattitude of college personnel is viewed as the most potentretention force on campus.” (p. 17)Student involvement in campus organizations also affectsstudent satisfaction (Cooper, Healy, and Simpson, 1994),drive to achieve, confidence in academic ability (House,2000), academic performance (Hartnett, 1965), anddecision to leave.Astin’s Student Involvement Theory (Astin, 1984) figuresprominently in the retention literature, suggesting that asstudents increase their physical and emotional investmenton their college campus (e.g., sports, clubs, campusactivities, involvement with faculty and staff), their rateof retention increases. (Note: These resulting associativerelationships may also explain the effectiveness of advisingrelationships and orientation programs.) Rickinson andRutherford (1995) identify several other models that aidin explaining the linkages between social adjustment andretention, to include:The Loss Model: separation anxiety can affect the abilityto make a new attachment.The Interruption Model: discontinuity in existing lifestyleand routines can raise anxiety.The Control Model: transition from a familiar to a newenvironment results in a period of loss of control.The Role-Change Model: anxiety of assuming a new roleand adjusting self-image.The Conflict Model: the security of home is balancedagainst the insecurity but also the challenge and interestof the new environment (Rickinson & Rutherford, 1995,para. 6).FacultySome of the most important implications revolve aroundrelationships with faculty. Astin (1993) suggests that nextto peer groups, “the faculty represents the most significantaspect of the student’s undergraduate development" (p.410). Studies of transfer students and freshmen studentsconfirmed the importance of faculty-student contact asan influential factor in student achievement, persistence,academic skill development, and personal development(Volkwein, King, & Terenzini, 1986; Pascarella &Terenzini, 1977).Faculty aid in retention in numerous ways. Researchdemonstrates that greater faculty-student interactionpromotes higher levels of student satisfaction with thecollege experience (Pace, 2001). A number of studentsstate or suggest that faculty participation and facultyinteraction is critical to student retention (Parker, 1999;Roach, 1999; and Tinto, 1989). Tinto (1987) emphasizesthe need for a connection to the institution if a studentis to be retained. Winston et al (1984) likewise identifyproactive faculty outreach as a significant part of thestudent’s decision to persist.According to Lau (2003), the use of collaborative andcooperative learning strategies, computer technology in theclassroom, computer laboratory experience, and teachingmethods that use mixed group techniques to foster criticalthinking and solve “real life,” “real business” problemsare critical to retention efforts. In addition, faculty inputand class contact with students has a profound influenceon student learning (Pascarrella and Terenzini, 1991).According to Lau (2003), faculty-student relationshipsand innovative teaching methods can significantlymotivate and challenge students to learn and stay inschool. Tinto (1987) found that students who are satisfiedwith the formal and informal academic and social systemsin a college or university tend to stay in school, whilethose with negative experiences become disillusionedand withdraw from family, friends, and the institution.

Advising and OrientationOther important implications revolve around relationshipsestablished with faculty and staff through advising andorientation programs. Gaff (1997) and others foundthat freshmen year programs produce higher academicachievement, increased student satisfaction, and increasedstudent retention. In the educational discourse, however,it is the terms “advising” and “retention” that go handin-hand.In fact, Crockett (1978) referred to advising asthe “cornerstone” of student retention. Cuseo (2003)describes academic advising as one of the major academicand social domains of the college experience that affectsstudent decisions about staying or leaving. As Wyckoff(1999) states, “To establish a high degree of commitmentto the academic advising process, university and collegeadministrators must become cognizant not only of theeducational value of advising but the role advising playsin the retention of students” (p. 3).According to Habley (1981), “Academic Advising isthe only structured activity on the campus in which allstudents have the opportunity for one-to-one interactionwith a concerned representative of the university” (p.45). Tinto (1987) suggests that advising is the very coreof successful institutional efforts to educate and retainstudents. King (1993) revealed that inadequate academicadvising emerged as the strongest negative factor instudent retention, while a caring attitude of facultyand staff and high quality advising emerged among thestrongest positive factors. Gordon (1985) put it thisway, “If there is an active, involved, ongoing relationshipbetween students and faculty advisors, a faculty advisingsystem can be an important ingredient in the retentionprocess” (p. 127). In fact, advising has become soimportant to student retention efforts that advising centersare not uncommon in residence halls, advisors are beingcentrally integrated into learning communities, and crossdisciplinaryadvisory boards for advising are being set upon campuses throughout the United States and abroad.Financial IssuesAccording to Nutt (2003), financial concerns often affectstudent persistence, and it is vital that advisors build strongcollaborations with the finance department on campus.As Nutt explains, “advisors need to be able to understandthe policies and procedures that affect students financialissues as well as have a clear understanding of how to refereffectively” (Nutt, 2003. para. 4). The loss of studentsreturning to campus for another year usually results ingreater financial loss and a lower graduation rate for theinstitution, and might also affect the way that stakeholders,legislators, parents, and students view the institution.”(Lau, 2003, para 2). Student retention is also a concernin the United Kingdom where, according to Nash (1996),administrators of academic institutions now focus mostof their efforts on decreasing student attrition, since theability to retain students has become a critical factor inobtaining outside funding.AUK is an academic culture in which the perception existsthat “money is not an issue.” However, for many of ourbest and brightest, it is. According to Lau (2003), numerousstudies indicate that students are motivated to improvetheir grades and stay in school when they are recipientsof financial assistance, aid, and scholarships. And priorperformance, course commitment and motivation are keyfactors influencing retention, progression, and completionrates at the university (Abbott-Chapman et al, 1992). Atthe time in which student advising becomes ingrained inthe Divisions level at AUK, rather than in the advisingcenter, it is critical that faculty understand the scholarship,payment, and financial options and responsibilitiesavailable to students.ResultsThis study triangulated a meta-analytical approach to theliterature on college student retention with AUK studentsurveys and faculty interviews involving over 200 subjects.Numerous studies demonstrate that finance is the keyreason why students do not enter or withdraw from theirfull time and part time higher education courses. Althoughexit data at the selected university identified “financial” asthe primary reason that Spring 2006 admits chose not toenroll, further examination via AUK surveys of currentlyenrolled student indicates that poor faculty-studentrelations, lack of facilities, course load, and poor timemanagement skills are key considerations in determiningif a student will choose to continue at the university in theFall 2007 and beyond, or not. In addition, although bothhigh student involvement in academic life on campus andfaculty participation in campus programs and events areproven ways to retain students, current enrollees reported alack of sufficient academic and social activities on campus,a noticeable lack of faculty participation in campus events,and only a 60% overall student satisfaction rate withAUK. Perhaps most interestingly, academic and socialprogramming needs predominate the student retentionliterature, with academic programming needs often givenpriority. At AUK, however, social programming needsplayed a significantly and surprisingly larger role. In fact,15

16some respondents indicated that it is not uncommon atAUK for students to come to the university primarily forsocial engagement and stimulation rather than academicengagement and stimulation, partially explaining highabsenteeism in classes.RecommendationsIn visualizing recommendations, solutions and improvements,it was helpful to modify Richardson and Skinner’s (1991)model, which includes three phases of institutionaladaptation to diversity. The adaptation is summarized asfollows (based on Kleeman’s [1994] previous modification):Stage One is reactive and concentrates on studentrecruitment, financial aid, admissions, and scheduling. Itemphasizes reducing barriers to higher education. Manypeople, including faculty, are often unaware of Stage Onechanges taking place at their institutions. When they areaware, they frequently voice concerns over “quality.” InStage One, achievement and growth may conflict.Stage Two is critical, because it emphasizes outreach,transition, mentoring and advising, and the environment.In Stage Two, effort is directed to helping students changeso they may achieve their academic and personal goals.Stage Three is an adaptive effort designed to improvestudent’s achievement by changing the learning environmentthrough student assessment, learning assistance, curriculumcontent, and improved teaching practices.Arguably, AUK, as a young institution, is still in Stage One.In the next 2-5 years, AUK should be able to effectivelytransition into Stage Two or beyond.Recommendations for increasing student retention ratesand facilitating successful degree completion include thedevelopment of numerous practical and proven studentcenteredretention and effective learning strategies. Theyare as follows:(Note: First, recognition of newly established programs or initiativesis overdue. These include the recent hiring of a RetentionSpecialist and the new “PALS” peer tutoring program.) Otherrecommendations include1. A New University Student Orientation Program thatfocuses on students who are academically prepared, aswell as students who are academically underprepared(where most of the focus generally resides). Also, theestablishment of an Honors Program motivates academichigh achievers who have a greater capacity for learning.2. A University Retention Steering Committee. Thesehave met with great success elsewhere. According toNutt (2003), “these committees report to both the VicePresidents of Academic and Student Affairs, establishingthat campus-wide collaborations, with advising as thecentral focus, are necessary for establishing effectiveretention efforts (Nutt, 2003, para. 8).3. The Establishment of an Institutional Research (IR)Office. An IR office is desperately needed to examinetrends and make recommendations based on readilyavailable census data, student evaluations, and otherstatistical data. This research provides two key examplesfor this need.First, in Burgess and Samuels (1999) article on studentretention, they found that sequential course instructor statusseems to be a predictor of college student success. Forboth developmental and regular courses, college studentsthat take the first course in a sequence from a part-timeinstructor, and the second course in the sequence froma full-time instructor are underprepared for the secondcourse, less likely to complete the second course, andless likely to pass the second course with a “C” or better.The increasing trend in higher education is the widespreaduse of part-time instructors. According to Burgessand Samuels (1999), many part time instructors teachdevelopmental and remedial courses, especially in English,reading, and mathematics; therefore, the students in needof the most assistance are taught by those least involvedin the university. In addition, part-time faculty is oftenasked to teach a substantial load without the pay, benefits,and support facilities of full-time faculty. As Burgess andSamuels explain:“Maricopa’s part-time faculty conditions of employmentare characterized by the following: no tenure or job security,instant nonrenewal at the discretion of Department chairs(lack of due process), generally inadequate or nonexistentoffice space and facilities, and no remuneration for timespent on student mentoring and counseling. Can it be thatpart time instructors grade more easily and demand lessfrom the students in order to avoid student complaints,which could jeopardize their continued employment?”(para. 31).Second, Langbein and Snider (1999) found that whencompared to mid-rated courses, enrollment in consistentlypoorly rated classes significantly reduces the probability of

etention. However, in addition, they found that enrollmentin consistently top-rated courses also significantly reducesthe probability of retention. In other words, the risingexpectations of the best and the brightest may, at times,only be met by exiting the university. These are the studentwe desperately want to keep! These are not drop-outs orstop-outs as discussed earlier—these are “top-outs.” Theyget bored, are not challenged, and leave.4. A Re-examination of the Role of First Year andDivisional Advising at AUK. In a recent survey of 1,000colleges and universities in the US, only 12% offeredincentives or rewards that recognized outstanding advisingof first-year students (Policy Center on the First Yearof College, 2003). Research shows that only minorconsideration is given to advising in faculty promotion andtenure decisions (Habley, 1988). In addition, over 2/3 ofpostsecondary institutions surveyed (1987) have no criteriafor selecting advisors (Crockett, Habley, and Cowart,1987). In fact, at AUK’s last faculty awards night, thosefaculty members recognized were recognized for theirpublications, not their teaching or service contributions.Based on his review of five national surveys of academicadvising, it became fairly clear, fairly quickly that, as Habley(2000) states, “…training, evaluation, and recognition andreward have been, and continue to be, the weakest links inacademic advising… These important institutional practicesin support of quality advising are at best unsystematic andat worst nonexistent” (p. 40). This presents an excellentopportunity for AUK to reexamine its current practices.5. AUK must recognize its inability to fully accomplishacademic and career preparedness in the context of anadvertised American model of Higher Education in asegregated learning environment. Mixed gender groupsand cooperative partnerships using face-to-face problembasedlearning methods to solve real world problems is nota reality in the gender segregated classroom, and createsinsurmountable pedagogical and international accreditationproblems, as recently evidenced. AUK’s administrativeposition thus far has been clear to faculty, staff, and students:We are guests in this country. If this issue is to be addressed,or changed, it must come from voters. That answer does notseem to be satisfying anyone. The owners of this universityare not guests of this country. Clear guidance, direction, anddeliberate and immediate courses of action are needed. Thisis a perceptual issue, and one less about local law, and moreabout institutional longevity. Less about holdings, and moreabout humanity. Less about short terms investments inproperties, and more about long term investments in people.In the interim, new AUK faculty should have theopportunity, during new faculty orientation, to be exposedto the latest teaching techniques appropriate to the gendersegregated classroom.6. The Establishment of a Teaching and Learning TechnologyCenter. AUK faculty are, due to intergenerationaldifferences and the rapid face of technology, generationsbehind current students in command of technology. Aninstructional technology development center is neededto enhance multimedia and computer-based learningapproaches, aid faculty in developing and utilizing thelatest technologies in curriculum development andcurricula, and foster greater integration of on line coursemanagement, to include platforms such as Web CT.7. Other. AUK student and faculty recommendationsvia self-report data for retention included: mandatoryfulfillment of prerequisites prior to course enrollment;mandatory advising prior to course registration; availabilityof 5-year course cycling plans via the web; a studentunion; adequate health, recreation, and sports facilities;a second-year experience; better, increased, and moreinnovative university advertising platforms; and increasedenforcement of university standards that promote studentresponsibility for their own actions.ConclusionIn a recent edition of Inside Higher Ed, the author describedthe new, for-profit university. He compared it to themovie industry, where a few companies make movies,and lots of others simply distribute them to theaters, ontelevision, and on DVDs. He described these universitiesas follows:“A small core of knowledge engineers who wrap coursesin to a degree to be distributed in cookie cutter institutionsand delivered by working professionals, not academics.There is no tenured faculty, no academic processes; thesole focus is on bottom line economic results. There21 st century institutions are not burdened with esotericpursuits of knowledge….they are market driven. [The] keysurvival mechanism is the ability to rapidly evolve to newenvironments and to position in the market. Since they donot carry tenured faculty, they can rapidly jettison disciplinesof study that do not penetrate market. Since they do nothave academic processes, they can rapidly bring to marketprograms that can capture market share….Not all havethe core capacities to compete long term in the market.Some emerge quickly, and as quickly become extinct.”17

18This is the thumbnail sketch of our primary marketcompetitors. Or, perhaps, this is the thumbnail sketch ofAUK’s future. The present will determine our path, andit begins with retaining the best and brightest faculty andstudents.Memory and Subjectivityamong Kuwaiti Youths:Child Witnesses of the 1990Iraqi Invasion of KuwaitConerly Casey and Juliet DinkhaThe 1990 Iraqi invasion and seven-month occupationof Kuwait led to dramatic changes in the health andmental health of Kuwaitis, with 20% higher rates ofmortality and increased post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD) among Kuwaitis who remained in Kuwait duringthe occupation (Public Health Impacts of Iraq’s1990Invasion and Occupation of Kuwait, Harvard School ofPublic Health, June 29, 2005). In the aftermath of theoccupation, numerous studies of children, based on thediagnostic criteria for PTSD—exposure to a traumaticevent and symptoms from each of three groups: intrusiverecollections of the trauma event, avoidance of remindersof the event and emotional numbing, and hyperarousal—established strong correlations between the Iraqi invasion,PTSD and depression, with higher prevalence rates forchildren than for adults (Abdel-Khalek 1997; Abdullatif1995; Al-Naser et al. 2000; Hadi and Llabre 1998; HSRPH2005; KISR 2005; Llabre and Hadi 1997; Nader et al. 1993).Yet, as Kirmayer, Lemelson and Barad (2007: 7) remindus, “What distinguishes PTSD from other psychiatricdisorders is the attribution of causality and the role thatmemory plays in its symptomatology”. The diagnosisof PTSD represents one strand in complex memoryprocesses that are biological and personal, but also social,cultural and political. The concept of trauma draws uponculturally variable idioms of distress, linked to social divideswithin Kuwait and access to resources, mental health andotherwise. Trauma, as a primary “wounding” may directour attention away from the amplification of past traumasby subsequent events and interactions (Hinton 2007: 447).Moreover, adults and children adopt certain feelings,ideas and ways of acting and remembering through directinteraction, and by indirectly “attending to how personsaround them are representing and constructing their worldthrough language” (Capps and Ochs 1995: 10). Adultsand children use cultural knowledge to make sense of andto narrate their own experiences of suffering. The effectsof trauma on our Kuwaiti child witnesses of the 1990Iraqi invasion reflect a convergence of veridical recall,socialization and enculturation practices of memory,emotion and subjectivity, and the transgenerationaltransmission of trauma through Kuwaiti parent-childinteractions, reconstructions based on family members’accounts of trauma.Using multiple methodologies—library research, mediacollections, participant-observations, semi-structured andperson-centered interviews, and family and communitystudies—our research focuses on four key questions:1) What are the relations of environmental contamination,PTSD and depression pre and post the 1990 Iraqi invasion?2) When does a memory become the memory, affectingsubjectivity, meaning and emotion?3) Is the U.S. War on Iraq triggering traumatic memories ofthe 1990 occupation? 4) How do memory and subjectivity,meaning and emotion, shape Kuwaiti familial and socialrelations? Our combination of approaches allows us togather social, cultural and political contexts and meaningsof young Kuwaitis' ideologies, attitudes, emotions, andactions in reference to the 1990 invasion and occupationand the current U.S. War on Iraq. Through narrationsof violence, the impact on socio- and psycho-culturalprocesses, we explore temporal and spatial convergencesof violence, fear and depression with other ongoingevents, ritual-religious calendars, the fetishization ofcertain forms of violence, and narrations of violence thathave wider social, political, or religious consequences thanthe acts of violence themselves.Child PTSD and DepressionShortly after the 1990 Iraqi invasion, Nader et al. (1993)found many children who remained in Kuwait during theoccupation to have multiple war-related exposures. Morethan 70 percent of the children in their study reportedmoderate to severe post-traumatic stress reactions.Witnessing death or injury and viewing explicit graphicimages of mutilation on television had a measurableinfluence on the severity of children’s trauma. Severalyears later, Al-Naser, al-Khulaifi, and Martino (2000)reported a prevalence of PTSD of 28.4% in sample ofKuwaiti citizens, with a higher prevalence of 45.6% in asubsample of students, whom the authors suggest haveincreased sensitivity to traumatic stress.

Hadi and Llabre (1998) assessed intelligence, posttraumaticstress and depression among Kuwaitis one year afteroccupation. They found a difference in levels of parentaldepression between those who stayed in Kuwait ascompared to those who were out for all or part of theoccupation. Though Hadi and Llabre (1998) found lowlevels of depression in children, they found depressioncorrelated with levels of exposure to violence and levelsof PTSD. Children who had a martyr or POW in thefamily (Abdullatif 1995) and boys (Llabre and Hadi 1997)reported higher levels of depression, with social supporta protective buffer for girls.Abdel-Khalek (1997), in a survey of fears associated withIraqi aggression among Kuwaiti children and adolescents,ages 13-17 years, identified three significant factors thathe named Iraqi Aggressor, War Machinery, and WarCorrelates and Effects. Abdel-Khalek concluded that theIraqi aggression’s adverse effects persisted 5.7 years afterthe trauma. In 2004, Abdel-Khalek (2004) reported higherscores for Kuwaitis on the Arabic Scale of Death Anxiety(ASDA) than their Egyptian or Syrian counterparts.These psychological studies describe important experiencesand concerns of suffers and survivors, and criticalgenerational and gender dynamics of trauma in theaftermath of the 1990 Iraqi invasion and occupation. Thestudies, taken together, point to the ongoing traumaticeffects of the invasion and occupation. Yet, as one strandof human experience, studies based on the diagnosisof PTSD or depression alone mask the reshaping ofexperience through diverse memory processes that impactsocial relations, Kuwaiti communal recovery, and a social,historical analysis that might lead to collective politicalresponses. The question here is whether medicalizingand individualizing collective trauma supports communalrecovery, a question that has important moral, politicaland legal ramifications.Memory, PTSD and Child WitnessesContrary to popular ideas about memory, memory doesnot operate like a video camera, providing a continuousphotographic copy of events and experiences (Schacter2003). Instead, multiple learning and memory systems“extract details, meanings, and associations from thestream of experience according to specific needs,selective attention, and cognitive and perceptual salienceor relevance” (Kirmayer, Lemelson and Barad 2007:8).Memories also change, undergoing repeated revisionand transformation with each attempt at recollection. Weliterally narrate ourselves, reshaping an awareness of ourfeelings and sense of identification with others througheveryday life (Capps and Ochs 1995). This underminesclaims that symptoms, such as flashbacks, are simplyreplays of indelible records, rather than reconstructionsin complex memory processes. Symptoms, such asflashbacks, may reflect veridical recall, obsessional worry,vivid imagination or ruminations of “worst case scenarios”(Frankel 1994; Kirmayer, Lemelson and Barad 2007:8).The diversity of these memory processes leads toambiguity and debate about what is veridical recalland what is reconstructed, confabulated or fabricatedmemory, particularly when the stakes of research, beyondpsychological health, incorporate moral and legal credibilityand economic claims for compensation. While studies ofPTSD and depression offer us useful foci for psychologicaltreatment and the basis for economic compensation fromperpetrators of traumas such as violence, they may alsomask complex, relational experiences and the confluenceof diverse social memory processes.Nordstrom (2004:226) suggests that “part of the wayviolence is carried into the future is through creatinghegemony of enduring violence across the length andbreadth of the commonplace world, present and future.The normal, the innocuous, and the inescapable areinfused with associations of lethal harm”. Respondentsin our study, child witnesses of the Iraqi invasion andoccupation, vividly recalled the dangers of Iraqi checkpoints on main roads, and the destruction of communitycenters, religious sites, public parks, schoolyards, andmarketplaces, places where war was brought home. Maleand female respondents recalled intimidation, control,and powerlessness at Iraqi soldier checkpoints, andsexually aggressive or inappropriate advances toward theirmothers. Male and female respondents reported fear,anxiety, visual horror and a loss of control in response tomedia portrayals of tortured and mutilated bodies.Young men, out of the home more often than theirsisters, vividly described maimed and murdered bodiesin communal areas close to their homes: A 24 year olddescribed “torture houses”, with “piles of dead bodies,a tortured man, still alive, led from the torture house toan ambulance”. He recalled children playing football withthe head of a murdered Iraqi after the liberation. A 22year old recalled “men being executed in front of my owneyes”. He said, “I felt helpless, not only because I wasa child, but my family could not control anything…no19

20one could protect me”. He said, “My older brother tooka soldier’s decapitated head and kicked it to me. I wasscared and still remember how I felt when I saw it”. A22 year old recalled “seeing a dead man hanging from alight post,” and “walking by workout facilities and cafeswith dead bodies”. A 23 year old remembered “childrenmaking poisonous drinks as a game to kill Iraqi soldiers”,to regain a sense of control, and to take revenge.During the occupation places associated with safety, suchas the home, were recast as lethal and inhumane or asrefuges for Iraqi soldiers. Some Kuwaiti neighborhoodswere unchanged in terms of family composition, while inothers, neighbors moved away or houses were destroyed.Respondents had strikingly different experiences dependingon their neighborhoods and whether or not the occupyingIraqis were Bathists, whom our child witnesses describedas “aggressive” and “violent” or non-Bathists who were“like children”. A 23 year old male described Bathistsoldiers breaking into his family’s home: “Iraqi soldiersbroke down our door. My brother spilled water on thesoldier, and he got angry; he yelled at my brother.” Livingin an area occupied by non-Bathists, a 24 year old malesaid: “Soldiers cried; they didn’t want to be there. Theywere forced. They needed food. The soldiers played withchildren, and joked.”Interestingly, all of our respondents described the occupationas a time of their best and worst memories with theirfamilies: A 23 year old female said: “It was perfect. No onehad to be there. Everyone was there because they wantedto be there. We were never so close”. Others describedincreased domestic violence, family conflicts, alcohol anddrug abuse, and increased promiscuity.In the aftermath of violence, ‘basic trust’, as Luhrmann(2000), Ewing (2000) and Robben (2000) suggest, maydefine and flame social, cultural and political identifications,critical to post-trauma healing and to the reconstructionof trust in oneself and in the familial, institutional andcultural practices that structure daily experience. Themourning and social channeling of collective trauma—theways in which people collectively remember and forgettrauma—are powerful aspects of group identification andrecovery that impact the likelihood of future violence(Taussig 1987; Volkan 1998; White 2005).The issue of identity, whether familial, ethnic, religiousor national became a central feature in remembrancesof ‘trust’ during the occupation. Kuwaitis recalled theirfamilies obtaining fake identification, using other languagesand dialects, and increased prejudice against Kuwaitis andPalestinians. Identity and the feeling of betrayal emergedthrough a majority of interviews. One respondent toldus, “They wrote Kuwait is for Palestinians” on city walls.Another asked, “Why should there be trust? We trustedPalestinians. We gave them jobs. They made money. Theywere our brothers and look how they stabbed us in theback.” A young woman of Palestinian family backgroundand Kuwaiti citizenship described increased isolationand harassment, with Palestinians fired from jobs. Fortythousand Palestinians were exiled. Respondents also feltbetrayed by Iraqis, particularly Saddam Hussein. Oneyoung woman said, “We always looked up to Saddamprotecting us from Iran and then he invades us.” Therewere accusations of relatives stealing from homes inwhich they took shelter, so that ultimately, our Kuwaitirespondents said they could trust only the members oftheir immediate families.The 2003 U.S. War on Iraq triggered intrusive images ofthe 1990 Iraqi invasion and occupation, increased anxietyand fear that Kuwait would again be invaded. Ongoingmedia coverage of the war, walking through the Museumof War (The Kuwait House Museum), and loud noises,particularly sirens, were additional triggers. A 23 year oldfemale said, “I felt paralyzing fear and stress when I heardsirens. Months later when Kuwait was no longer in danger,the government still kept testing sirens. I would wake upduring the siren testing and feel fearful and short of breath.”While the majority of our respondents had never beendiagnosed with PTSD or depression, they describedperiods of depression, isolation, emptiness, and emotionaldisconnectedness. They lacked a sense of loyalty or trust,describing instead paranoia, dependency on friends andfamily, anger and frustration, and the feeling of having nofuture in Kuwait.Embodied Memory and the Social EnvironmentThe contested idea that trauma involves “embodiedmemory” is framed differently in psychological and social,cultural research (Brewin 2003; Connerton 1989; van derKolk 1994; Stoller 1995). According to Kirmayer, Lemelsonand Barad (2007: 8-9), “The body (more specifically,circuits involving subcortical and cortical areas of the brainnot accessible to consciousness) acquires associationsas conditioned emotional responses or habits…but thisdoes not yield declarative memory, and the origins of thelearned association cannot be directly described unless

the event was encoded in parallel as declarative memory inthe first place”. They suggest that “learned dispositions”must be “represented and interpreted to construct adeclarative memory”. By contrast, Stoller (1995: 28-29),drawing on Connerton’s distinctions between personal,cognitive and habit memories, suggests that “habitdoes not lend itself to the visual bias that is central todiscursive analysis… In their insistence of the discursive,scholars transform the figurative into language and text.And yet our memories are never purely personal, purelycognitive, or purely textual”. For Connerton and Stoller,separating personal, cognitive and habit memories fromsocial memories is meaningless. A young man, aged 26,recalled, “I developed a twitch after frequent torture; mynerves were extremely damaged. My family got depressedbecause I became a drug addict during the war to escapethe pain I was going through. I got the drugs from theIraqi soldiers.” A 23 year old young woman said, “I heardcanons. It was always dark. My family and I felt isolatedbecause it was unsafe for us to leave the house. Life wasdepressing and frightening and everyone felt anxious andtense. I still can’t look at anything related to the war orP.O.W.S. without feeling extremely very sad.” A 29 yearold woman recalled, “There was black smoke everywhere,especially a few months into the occupation. It looked likenight time all day long. The sea was very contaminated.I saw dirty and dead wildlife on the streets and oceancoasts (mostly birds). My family and I were very anxiousthe entire time because my uncle was in the Resistance(al-moqawama). Soldiers raided and searched the houseto find him and execute him. I didn’t know where he was.We were scared for his life because we never contactedhim or saw him during the entire war. I developed a fearof bombs and loud noises. I still feel jittery when I hear aloud noise. I felt a serious lack of security and safety.”Child Witnesses: Concluding RemarksOur preliminary findings suggest that young Kuwaiti adults,child witnesses of the 1990 Iraqi invasion, experienceintrusive images of tortured and mutilated bodies triggeredby the 2003 U.S. War on Iraq. These intrusive images are aconfluence of veridical recall, obsessional worry, and vividruminations of “worst case scenarios”. Young Kuwaitistend toward obsessive anxious vigilance about the U.S.War on Iraq or complete disengagement; though few ofour subjects were diagnosed with PTSD or depression,the majority report increased post-invasion depressionand aggression, using drugs and alcohol to self-medicate.The young Kuwaitis in our study describe insecurity andconfusion about human accountability—who to blame fortheir traumatic experiences during the Iraqi invasion andoccupation. Some blame Saddam Hussein and the BathistIraqi regime, while others blame the Kuwaiti Emir andRoyal family, the Kuwaiti government, or parents who “fledfrom Kuwait”, failing to provide adequate security andcare. Our young Kuwaiti adults report increased mistrust,nationalism and ethnic chauvinism, no sense of future orfuture planning, and numbness and emptiness. Almost allof our study respondents have an “escape plan”, meaningthat they hold the passport or a current visa of anothercountry to facilitate a quick departure from Kuwait.The effects of trauma on our respondents reflect a convergenceof veridical recall, socialization and enculturation processesduring the occupation, and the transgenerationaltransmission of trauma through Kuwaiti familial interactions,reconstructions based on family members’ and communityreports of experience. Kuwaiti memories of theoccupation were closely tied to social, familial relationsand neighborhood. Temperament, biological factors,experience within families and neighborhoods, and priorexperience with trauma might serve to protect somechildren from serious psychological consequences—ormake them more vulnerable. For Kuwaiti young adults, it isthe temporal and spatial dimensions of trauma in relationto self and other that become important in communalrecovery from the trauma of the 1990 Iraqi invasion andoccupation. Nostalgia of pre-invasion social cohesivenessand safety, give way to traumatic aftereffects—personal,cognitive and habitual—and the divides of history,power and social position. These traumatic aftereffects areentangled memory strands that foster ongoing insecurity,mistrust, nationalism and ethnic chauvinism, requiringpsychological treatment, and relief that individuals mayneed, as well as attention to social and political responsesthat render trauma visible and account for the continuingdestructive presence of other forms of violence.21

22ReferencesAbdel-Khalek, A.M., (1996). Factorial Structure of theArabic Children’s Depression Inventory Among KuwaitiSubjects. Psychological Reports, 78, 963-967.Abdel-Khalek, A.M., (1997). A Survey of Fears Associatedwith Iraqi Aggression Among Kuwaiti Children andAdolescents: A Factorial Study 5.7 years After the GulfWar. Psychological Reports, 81, 247-255.Abdel-Khalek, A.M., (1998). Criterion-Related Validity ofthe Arabic Children’s Depression Inventory. PsychologicalReports, 82, 930.Abdel-Khalek, A.M. & Soliman, H.H. (1999). A Cross-Cultural Evaluation of Depression in Children in Egypt,Kuwait, and the United States. Psychological Reports, 85,973-980.Abdel-Khalek, A.M.,(2003). The Multidimentional Child andAdolescent Depression Scale: Psychometric Properties.Psychological Reports, 93, 544-560.Abdel-Khalek, A.M. (2004). The Arabic Scale of DeathAnxiety (ASDA): Its Development, Validation, and Resultsin Three Arab Countries. Death Studies, 28, 435-457.Abdel-Khalek, A., & Lester, D. (2002).Manic-Depressiveness, Obsessive-Compulsive Tendencies,and Suicidality in Kuwaiti College Students. PsychologicalReports, 90, 1007-1008.Abdel-Khalek, A., & Lester, D. (2003). The Kuwait UniversityAnxiety Scale: A Cross-Cultural Evaluation in Kuwait andUnited States. Psychological Reports, 93, 1109-1114.Abdullatif, H.I., (1995). Prevalence of Depression amongMiddle-School Kuwaiti Students Following the IraqiInvasion. Psychological Reports, 77, 643-649.Ahmad, A., Sofi, M.A., Sundelin-Wahlsten V, von KnorringA.L. (2000). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Childrenafter the Military Operation “Anfal” in Iraqi Kurdistan.European Child& Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 235-243.Al-Naser, F., al-Khulaifi, I.M., & Martino, C. (2000).Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Four andOne-Half Years after the Iraqi Invasion. InternationalJournal of Emergency Mental Health, 2 (3) : 153-56.Capps, L. and Ochs, E. (1995). Constructing Panic : TheDiscourse of Agoraphobia. Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress.Connerton, P. (1989). How Societies Remember. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.Frankel, F. H. (1994). The concept of flashbacks inhistorical perspective. International Journal of Clinical andExperimental Hypnosis, 42( 4), 321-336.Hadi, F.A., & Liabre, M. M. 1997). Social Support andPsychological Distress in Kuwaiti Boys and Girls Exposedto the Gulf Crisis. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 3(2),247-255.Hadi, F.A., & Liabre, M. M. 1998). The Gulf CrisisExperience of Kuwaiti Children: Psychological andCognitive Factors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11. 45-56.Kirmayer, L., Lemelson, R., & Barad, M. (2007) UnderstandingTrauma: Integrating Biological, Clinical, and Cultural Perspectives.New York: Cambridge University Press.Lester, D. & Abdel-Khalek, A. (1998). Depression in CollegeStudents in the United States and Kuwait. PsychologicalReports, 83, 410.Lester, D. & Abdel-Khalek, A. (2003). Obsession-Compulsionand its Relation to Age and Sex in Kuwaiti and AmericanStudents. Psychological Reports, 93, 803-804.Llabre, M. and Hadi, F. A. 1997). Social Support andPsychological Distress in Kuwaiti Boys and Girls Exposedto the Gulf Crisis. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26(3): 247-255.Manu, P. (2004). The Psychopathology of Functional SomaticSyndromes. New York: The Haworth Medical Press.Nader, K.O., Pynoos, R.S., Fairbanks, L.A., al-Ajeel, M.,& al-Asfour A. (1993). A Preliminary Study of PTSDandGrief among the Children of Kuwait Following the GulfCrisis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32 (4): 407-416.Nordstrom, C. (2004). Shadows of War: Violence, Power, andInternational Profiteering in the Twenty-First Century. Berkeley:University of California Press.

Public Health Impacts of Iraq’s 1990 Invasion andOccupation of Kuwait: Phase I Summary of Epidemiologyand Risk Assessment, Harvard School of Public Health,June 29, 2005.Schacter, D. L. (2003). How the Mind Forgets and Remembers:The Seven Sins of Memory. London: Souvenir.Stoller, P. (1995). Embodying Colonial Memories: Spirit Possession,Power, and the Hauka in West Africa. New York and London:Routledge.Taussig, Michael. 1991. The nervous system. New York:Routledge. 1997 The magic of the state. New York: Routledge.Volkan, V. (1998). Bloodlines: From ethnic pride to ethnic terrorism.Boulder, CO: Westview Press.White, G. (2005). Emotive Institutions. In Companion to PsychologicalAnthropology: Modernity and psychocultural change, eds. ConerlyCasey and Robert Edgerton, 241-254. Malden, MA andLondon: Blackwell Publishers, Inc.A Complexity-informedBasis for Social and CulturalChange in the GulfDavid LevickIt can be argued that social and cultural change in anysociety is driven by three factors: resources, powerand identity. Because of the dynamic nature of theinterrelationship between these three factors, theprosperity of all civilizations and societies peaks andwanes. The current profile of the Gulf States has risenin the 20th Century with Western dependence on oil andcould wane when this dependence disappears. This can beexplained through the process of globalization that linksaccess and control of scarce and desired resources withpower and identity (Woog and Dimitrov, 2004).This first decade of the new millennium offers an opportunityfor the Gulf States to take stock of their position and tobe proactive in shaping and investing their current goodfortune in a new basis of power for coming decades.The current and prestigious social and cultural dynamicsof the Gulf States have been due to their access to andcontrol of significant oil reserves upon which much ofthe world depends.While it can be expected that this dependence will continuefor several decades – especially as China rises as a worldeconomic power – economic principles will see alternativesources of power become more viable, thus diminishingthe control the Gulf States have over oil production.What, then, will source the prosperity and wealth of theGulf States and allow them and their people to maintaintheir current identity and status? While still riding thewave of fossil-fuel prosperity, now is an opportune timefor these nations to identify and gain control of accessto the desires resources of the future and thus maintaintheir powerbase among the nations of the world and tomaintain or even enhance their current identity.Given current global debate and trends, the resourcesto be strongly desired by the world’s population in thefuture are likely to be those of water and renewableenergy sources. These two resources will act as ‘attractors’or oases around which nations of the world will clusterfor access. Those who control such sources of energy andwater – or perhaps the technology to harness them – willachieve the power to develop or maintain identities ofhigh status and privilege.23

24Understanding of this phenomena of complex systems – movingfrom one set of ‘attractors’ to others, over time – empowersthe conscious observer to move to the new set of attractorsbefore others, and to capitalize on prime positioning,particularly if that observer is able to control access byothers. Such is the position of the Gulf States: nations ofthe world have had their fill at the oases of oil productionand their caravans are setting out to other destinations.If the Gulf States are to maintain their current identityand lifestyle, they too need to move on to be the earlycolonizers of future oases, centered on technology thatdelivers potable water and renewable energy. This paperwill elaborate on this social movement from a ComplexityScience perspective, charting a pathway of consciousdevelopment that Gulf States might consider for their future.With increased globalization and interaction among thevarious people and cultures of the world, there might bea tendency for the Gulf States to look to the seeminglysuccessful knowledge systems of the West as a way torationalize steps to a prosperous future. These knowledgesystems tend to be informed by conventional, Cartesianscience that emphasizes ‘control’ of dynamics to ensurewe can make predictions, with some certainty, and travel ina direct line to an already conceived destination – which issatisfactory for short-term development and social movement.However, in the present, increasingly globalized andless predictable climate of human interaction, greaterconfidence to move forward is more likely to come fromComplexity Science’s emphasis both on ‘navigation’ throughthe unforeseen future dynamics and on the integrity ofthe vessel we are navigating. This suggests moving withthe dynamics to be encountered, rather than seeking tocontrol or eliminate their influence; moving our Boom ina series of strategic tacks – as the various economic andsocial winds allow – towards the desired attractor of thefuture. This Complexity Science approach might betterresonate with Arabic cultural values of negotiation andre-negotiation, as environmental and social conditionsand networks change, and thus be a more comfortableknowledge system upon which the Gulf States can rely tochart the social and cultural change necessary to maintaintheir prosperity in the coming century.When Wasta and LiberalArts Conflict: A Case Studyof a Private UniversityMark J. Olson, Ph.D.AbstractRapid globalization and events after 9/11 have increased thedemand for local Western liberal education. This paper examinesthe hurdles surrounding its adoption and adaptation in ArabianGulf settings. The hurdles stem from differing cultural assumptionsconcerning knowledge precepts, identity emphasis and means ofproblem resolution. Findings from different sources converge tosupport the familiar thesis that particular practices are more likely tobe adopted if they are compatible with the society’s dominant socialvalues. In this context, positive management of cultural practicessuch as intercessory wasta (personal connections to obtain specialbenefits or consideration) becomes indispensable to establishing andmaintaining western liberal education systems in the Gulf.1.0 IntroductionVarious versions of modernization theory, often couched in terms oftraditional-modern dichotomies, suggest that innovations are morelikely to be adopted if they are compatible with the dominant localcultural practices. Similarly, contingency approaches suggest thatorganizations establish congruence with their environment. However,both approaches minimize the accommodating or interactive aspectsof the host culture and environment. We are interested in knowinghow western liberal education is being accommodated by traditionalauthority structures in the Gulf.The issue being addressed is the extent to which the introduction ofwestern liberal education has resulted in adaptation to its environment.This paper briefly reviews the literature on higher education in the Gulfto identify factors leading to the demand for western liberal education.After which, issues are raised concerning the transferability ofwestern liberal education to the Gulf setting. The role of intercessorywasta the practice of using intermediaries to obtain a better gradeor another concession without consideration to merit, is exploredin this accommodation process. After discussing the findings, thepaper goes on to offer intra-organizational and extra-organizationalsuggestions including for the positive management of wasta.2.0 ContextThe setting for this study is a private university recentlyestablished in Kuwait in cooperation with a U.S. university.Although a number of students have attended otherschools, many admitted students are unprepared for

college work and have inadequate preparation in English.Limited access to remedial, academic help for weakerstudents and a shortage of student advisors exacerbatethe problem. Students frequently live with their parentsor other family member and commute from their family’shomes where a relatively high standard of living isenjoyed. Students appear to have ample time to focus onstudying and to be free from financial worries. However,faculty members complain about lax student attitudestowards attendance, their studies and that plagiarism,cheating on exams and grade negotiations are rife.Until now, there have been few incentives for academicexcellence; e.g. securing a well-paying job after graduationis customarily more associated with wasta, a practice thatuses personal or influential connections of a family memberor associate. However, traditional avenues of employmentsuch as the government are tapering off. When pressed,students, especially males, often concede that they worryless about securing a good job than obtaining a degreeto improve their social status or enhance their marriageprospects. In sum, studying often does not appear tooccupy an important role in the students’ daily lives andfamilial obligations are often cited for not studying.3.0 Literature Review:3.1 Factors Leading To Western Liberal EducationDemandCurrently, the Gulf region is experiencing tumultuousgrowth in secondary and post secondary private schoolsand universities. Private universities represent about 27%of the 149 university affiliated with the Association ofArab Universities. Many of the current and future startupsof private universities are envisioned for the Gulf.The demand for imported Western liberal education hasincreased in the Gulf because of several contributingfactors. First, from the 1970’s onwards, the region sawthe demise of the Egyptian influenced system and a shiftto the credit point system prominent in the Americaneducation system (Mazawi, 2004). Secondly, the qualityassurances for training and research are seen as higherin US universities than elsewhere. Thirdly, even before9/11, the relative numbers of Arab students studyingin the United States were on the decline resulting in acumulative 30% drop from 1999 to 2002 (Derhally, 2003).Taken together, these factors have increased the demandfor local western liberal education as Middle Easternstudents find it harder to pursue studies in the West.A less examined, but increasingly important reason for theprivatization of higher education in the Gulf is that theregion’s established public institutions of higher educationare finding themselves unable to accommodate theirburgeoning, young populations, (especially expatriates)under the mounting shortages of professional educatorsand limited public resources dedicated to higher education.The brunt of future investment associated with highereducation will likely be borne by the private sector owingto its flexibility in coping with the changing demographics,shifting budget priorities of Gulf governments, privatemarket needs, and because of the potential for growingfinancial returns. For example, one Kuwaiti educationcompany boasting 27,000 students at all levels, reputedlyearned about $35 million in fiscal year 2004.Finally, educators have been imported from other countriesto the Gulf owing to historical shortages of local teachingprofessionals. Various nationalities including Egyptians,British, Indians, and others have preceded U.S. citizensas administrators and teachers. With the increasingparticipation and presence of the U.S. in the Gulf, comesincreased impetus and means for synchronizing educationin the region with the political and economic system overwhich the U.S. currently holds hegemonic presence.One American consultant in the United Arab Emiratesnoted that a new university ,”is designed to reflect thetypical design of colleges and universities in the US…tofacilitate transfers to US institutions and entrance to USgraduate programs.”(Mazawi, 2004)3.2 Transferability of Western Liberal EducationThe quest for educational change, from a Gulf Arabperspective, might be summarized as how to bestmodernize Gulf education without disrupting orchanging its traditional social structures. Implicit in thisview is that elements in western liberal education canbe appropriated without having to resort to a wholesaletransfer. Education transfer, to use an analogy, becomesa smorgasbord of sorts where the desired elements areselected and less desirable ones are left off the plate. Theanswer to the implicit question as to whether culturalelements act as a facilitating or restraining agent tomodernization seems to stand on end. Wolfgang Zapf(2004) in his examination of modernization process inthe context of the Middle East suggests that since there isno unified Islamic front, it can be expected that there willbe different kinds and rates of adoption of technology(and by inference, education). However, this observation25

26glosses over the filtering effects of cultural variables.For example, one study of technological transfer to theMiddle East suggests that culture variables tend to act as afilter of sorts in information technology transfer (Straubet.al, 2003).While unexamined here, the theoretical underpinningharkens back to an old debate between modernizationand dependency proponents: Can rational practicesbased on the idealized meritocracy replace practicesbased on traditional notions of kinship and affiliation?In this context, can liberal western style education beadapted to the Gulf without having to resort to an “all ornothing” adoption approach? If traditional societies takea smorgasbord approach to the transfer of western liberaleducation and the resulting arrangement works, it is trulylike having ones cake and eating it, too.3.3 The Compatibility of Liberal Western Education’sAssumptions and OutcomesWestern liberal education is a relative newcomer to ArabGulf settings although its roots can be traced back toAristotle’s writings about education. According to theAmerican Association of Colleges and Universities(AAC&U),A truly liberal education is one that prepares us to liveresponsible, productive, and creative lives in a dramaticallychanging world. It is an education that fosters a wellgrounded intellectual resilience, a disposition towardlifelong learning, and an acceptance of responsibility forthe ethical consequences of our ideas and actions… [It]requires that we understand the foundation of knowledgeand inquiry about nature, culture, and society…Whatmatters in liberal education is substantial content, rigorousmethodology, and an active engagement with the societal,ethical, and practical implications of our learning”.(AAC&U, 1998)This brings us to the fore of our inquiry about thecompatibility of western liberal education ideals withthe culture and traditions of the Arabian Gulf setting.Conservative settings are not necessarily inhospitable tothe cherished ideals of western liberal education such astolerance and free thinking, but several cultural tensionschallenge the viability of liberal Western-style educationinstitutions in the Gulf. These include:• Knowledge precepts concerning acceptable knowledgeversus knowledge for knowledge’s sake.• The relative emphasis placed on collective versusindividual identity.• The extent of reliance on mechanical versus organicmeans of problem resolution and its correspondingrelationship to organizational development withineducational settings.3.4 Knowledge PreceptsThe philosophy behind Western-style liberal education andknowledge acquisition can be summed up as knowledgefor knowledge’s sake. By contrast, knowledge acquisitionin Islamic societies stems from the principle thatknowledge be acceptable, i.e. praiseworthy, permissibleand not blameworthy. J.M. Halsted (2004) believes thatIslamic education and western educational philosophies arefundamentally incompatible. While the Prophetic reports(Hadith collections) indicate that knowledge without anyreal use in human life is useless, the Quran seems to suggestthat any knowledge that contributes to one's personaldevelopment is considered valuable. Utility, in that sense,is left up to the individual and the society to decide upon.There appears to be a growing body of opinion thatsuggests that it is not the Quran, but its diverse culturalinterpretations that are responsible for the emergenceof oppositional thinking between Islamic and westerneducational values (Bagheri and Khosrawi, 2006). In theabsence of any resolution to this underlying knowledgedilemma, Gulf students, perhaps, like other Muslimsconfronting conflictive western values, appear to havedeveloped dual frames of reference and communication,one local-traditional and the other, global-modern(Findlow, 2001). Suffice it to say that instead of a synthesisof Arab cultural and religious heritage with growingWesternization of lifestyles, two separate accounts arekept, much like keeping two sets of accounting books;each used for differing circumstances and needs.3.5 Individual versus Collective IdentityAnother factor that Western-style education institutionschallenge is the difference in relative emphasis on individualidentity versus collective identity. It is supposed that individualidentity is encouraged along with critical thinking inwestern intellectual life. In contrast, the literature suggeststhat traditional Islamic education is largely teacher andtext-oriented and by extension, emphasizes collectiveidentity and rote learning skills over individual identityand critical analysis skills. This emphasis comes out of themadressa (Islamic school) tradition for learning about Islam and theQuran, a method where knowledge is transmitted by rote

memorization and repetition. This approach emphasizesacquired content while critical analysis incorporatingthe learner’s life experience is minimized. These dualframes of reference are mirrored in four learning modesthat Shahin (2005) identifies as diffuse or foreclosed fortraditional orientations and exploratory or achieved formodern orientations.A lesser examined aspect of this collective versus individualidentity dichotomy relates to the need to be acceptedas part of the collective group or risk isolation fromone’s fellow students and how this challenges academicintegrity. For example, students who engage in cheatingand plagiarism or bargaining over grades see these as actsof collective cooperation and helping out one another.The circumstances surrounding these acts are mitigatedbecause the perpetrator has a felt moral obligation to thecollective. The alternative, as noted, is to be isolated andoutcast from the group.Taken from this socially constructed perspective,as Kendall notes in her article on Kuwaiti students,personalized relations justify cheating and treating gradesas negotiable items - even though, this challenges westernviews of academic propriety:In intimate social formations, particularly in families,people make allowances for each other’s personalities andpredilections, adjusting their behaviors and discernmentsto the perceived requirements of the moment. Undersuch conditions, impartiality is impossible; under suchconditions, partiality is demanded. By contrast, wherepeople have few genuine moral obligations, where theirinteractions are casual or commercial, where they areignorant of the factors playing upon others, they havelittle basis for recognizing mitigating circumstances andhence for exercising discretion. Under such conditionsappeals to impersonal rules and abstract standards areindicative not so much of peoples’ ethical sophisticationand advance as they are indicative of their estrangement.(Kendall, 1991:101)3.6 Means for Problem ResolutionMost visitors to the Gulf region are likely to hear aboutor experience wasta. The term refers to mediation orintercession often to obtain services or some end throughpersonal connections. A distinction is made betweenintermediary wasta and intercessory wasta. The formerhas as its goal mediation to resolve inter-personal or intergroupdifferences. In contrast, intercessory wasta has asits aim a benefit for example, obtaining a driving license,reduction of a penalty, getting a job, etc.In the context of education, wasta can refer to a connectionfor the purpose of negotiating and inflating grades, usinginfluential outsiders and insiders to hire staff membersand instructors, admitting unqualified or under-achievingstudents, pressuring faculty members in various ways so thatsome students receive special consideration and bendingof the rules in favor of certain outcomes, among otherthings. “Intercessory wasta exemplifies the collective actionproblem” where action furthering “individual interestharms the collective interest” (Cunningham and Sarayrah,1994: 9). In this case, the education and re-tooling of anational workforce to participate in the global economyare being put at a disadvantage because wasta drives outcompetence based education and its emphasis on criticalthinking skills deriving from western liberal education.4.0 Research QuestionsThe above literature review suggests three general themesrevolving around knowledge, identity, and means ofproblem resolution. Specifically, these themes are: a) thephilosophical compatibility of western liberal arts withIslamic precepts concerning knowledge; b) the inherentbias towards individualist and critical forms of learningfound in western liberal education versus the collectivistic,rote forms of learning found in Islamic cultures;and c) depersonalized forms of problem resolutionwithin bureaucratic (organic) structures in contrast tothe personalized forms of problem resolution withintraditional non-bureaucratic (mechanistic) structures.In turn, these themes surrounding the establishment ofWestern-style education in the Arabian Gulf give rise tothe following issues:• How much curriculum adaptation or modification canbe accepted before liberal education becomes devoidof its premises and content?• To what extent is successful diffusion of Western-styleeducation in a local traditional, conservative settingpossible?• Who is adapting to whom? Is liberal educationadapting to its environment or vice versa?This paper focuses on the third issue because it partiallysubsumes the other two issues and in examining the issuessurrounding adaptation we can direct our attention topractical applications for the classroom and the educationsystem. In particular, the hypothesis addressed by this studyis: Intercessory wasta is being used to accommodate westernliberal education to traditional authority structures in Gulf.27

285.0 MethodologyThis study relied on the following research tools to guidethe study:a. Student questionnaire (in the appendix)b. Documents (university publications, pamphlets,meeting notes and articles)c. Participant observation of faculty, administrativepersonnel, and studentsd. Articles about the university found in local andUS newspapers.6.0 ResultsA convenience sample of 100 students, approximately 10%of the total student population, was surveyed in 8 classes.The sample had a nearly equal numbers of females (n=52)and males (n=46). There were more transfer students(51%) than first time attendees (42%) in the survey. Thehigher number of transfer students also contributes to ahigher average student age of 21.7 years, with a range from19 to 28 years of age at a time when the school was only 3years old. The most frequently cited motive for attendingthe school was to be closer to their parents’ homes (27%),followed by those who are enrolled seeking a qualityeducation (25%). A third category was created combiningthose students reporting enrollment because of low GPAs(11%), and those awaiting transfer to another school (9%)since the likely common denominator to both is a lowGPA at the time of matriculation. The mean average forcurrent GPA reported was 2.8 with a range from 1.3 to4.0. Over half of the reported GPAs (61%) were aboveC+ with 7% reporting GPAs below 2.0.Nearly half of the students in the sample (49%) likelylived and studied abroad for 1 to 5 years. The countryof residence abroad most cited was the U.S. (7%) in thecomments. Next, in order of frequency came MiddleEastern followed by European, African and Asiancountries. One student reported living in 4 countries.Among transfer students, the largest share (30%) had beenin only one other school. Another 12% had been in twoother schools. The most schools attended by a transferstudent were 8. The majority sampled (81%) indicatedthat their education was financed by their parents althougharound 22% of the students reported working and 13 %paid their own tuition and fees.Circumstantial information suggests that extended timein school and delayed completion of college degreesmay reflect a larger local trend. In casual conversationswith students, a number had spent significant amountsof time in undergraduate programs outside of Kuwait,such as Bahrain, nearly completing their majors only toreturn to Kuwait for various reasons. Given the limitedtransferability of coursework, many have few optionsother than to start over again, repeating earlier course work.One third of the students sampled reported carrying aload of 15 credit hours (33%). This is followed by thosereporting loads of 12 credit hours (28%), and 17 to 21credits hours (11%). While the average reported creditload (13.7 credit hours) seems reasonable, the average totalcredit completion rate is less than expected. Assumingan unchanging average credit load of 13.7 from the firstsemester onwards (and ignoring any validity issues for themoment), the average student would complete 54.8 in 4semesters. However, the average credit completion rate (34credits) is 62% of this projected figure (54.8). Lacking anyhard data, the course drop rates and withdrawal activitymerit further investigation, especially for their impacts onthe education process.Survey questions focused on obtaining student opinionsand rankings of various aspects of the university such asadministration/registration, professors, fellow students,activities, classrooms, and facilities. The students wereasked to identify problems within the university as wellas suggest solutions to address these problems. Overall,sampled students ranked the school as above average(42%), followed by average (37%) and below average atnearly one-fifth of the sample (18%). Among studentssurveyed, three factors were ranked above average inthe university; these include its professors (51%), fellowstudents (45%), and Information Technology (44%).Turning attention to written comments about rankings ofprofessors and students, students (n=14) identified theirfellow students as the thing that they liked best aboutthe university. In their comments; they identified theirfriendships and their peers’ helpfulness. In contrast, a fewstudents (n=4) identified the negative qualities about theirclassmates’ attitudes, i.e. their high school-like behavior,the lack of student body diversity and student proclivitiesto gossip. The professors’ friendliness and understandingwere cited in some comments (n= 7), with one studententhusiastically noting that “professors give great curves”and that classes are “easy”. Friendliness and helpfulnessratings notwithstanding, they may be equated, at some level,with instructor willingness to give students concessions ingrading and student willingness to collaborate with each

other in the pursuit of higher grades. As one student putit in a conversation, referring to her cool relations withher fellow female classmates, “They don’t like me becauseI don’t help them cheat.”By contrast, the four items most frequently rankedbelow average include: administration/registration(62%), sports (56%), extra-curricular activities (49%) andstudent advising (46%). The main feedback concernsregistration activities and its personnel. (Low rankingsfor sports, extracurricular activities and student advisingreflect their absence; this point is revisited under studentrecommendations.) Some students felt that certainstudents receive preferential treatment owing to wasta thatis used on their behalf. Among the identified forms ofpreferential treatment attributed to wasta were: registrationafter the add/drop period has closed, access to classeswhen registration has closed, choice of instructor, removalof attendance warnings, matriculation with low GPAs andgrade changes. It is important to clarify that whether thissituation actually exists, the perception is that it does. In onestudent’s assessment:I think wasta does exist…, but truthfully I haven’t seen it first hand,but it is obvious with some of the students and the (privileges)they have, especially with the registration department.The presence of wasta, defined in the survey as gettingillegal or illicit favors through connections, is ranked asbeing high or very high by 46% among those surveyed. Itis noteworthy that over twice as many students identifiedwasta issues with registration (35%) as compared tofaculty (15%) in the survey comments. Some commentsabout faculty mention instructors exchanging grades forservices or being influenced by wasta. One student aptlysummarized the concern in the following:Wasta exists everywhere not only at (this university), butthe question (is) why is it at (this university) …and itprovides an education. All students should be equal…only their grades and hard (work) should determine whatthey should get…At the end, survey respondents were asked: If you wereappointed to improve anything you want at (this university) whatwould you do? Responses were categorized by subject. Themain suggestions for administration and registration,courses, policies, faculty and students that emerged are:• Improving registration procedures and upgrade theirstaff qualifications.• Offering more courses with greater section availability.• Implementing grade policies ensuring fairness.• Integrating classes for males and females.• Employing more and better qualified faculty.• Demonstrating greater concern and fairness towardstudent educational needs.Given the students’ perception that wasta exists as anunofficial practice and that it influences grade assignments,students are reinforced into viewing grades as negotiablecommodities instead of benchmarks for achievement. Asthe student profile emerging from the survey suggests,there are more incentives to negotiate grades if the studenthas extensive time in school, a faltering GPA, a low coursecompletion rate and there is limited oversight of studentprogress and needs by counselors and advisors.By the same token, it is also easier for student counselorsand instructors to become remiss in their obligationsas standard bearers for quality work in learning. Eveninexperienced ones soon come to realize that they willbe besieged by students (if not their wasta intercessors),seeking to negotiate grades if their charges are not passingat acceptable levels. It becomes expedient to devisegrading schemes that permit the largest number to passor overlook plagiarized content in papers. As one studentnotes about grading: “If the professor is mostly afraid ofthe position of the student’s background he will let himpass and even with good grade. Not all professors do this,but there are existing professors who really use ‘wasta’.”(Spelling and grammatical errors kept for emphasis.)This study and the literature seem to suggest that wastathrives where accountability is lacking; lines of authorityare unclear; and there is no organizational learning. Amongfirst impressions of newcomers to this university is thatthere are no institutionalized procedures (partly becauseby-laws and written rules are inaccessible); decisionmakingand planning processes are not transparent;and communication is inadequate. In sum, wasta issymptomatic of an organization whose existing rules arebeing un-enforced and structures that are being by-passed.Wasta is, as one student put it, the “back door” to gettingthings done. It continues because whatever formal alternativesare not functioning for the student, faculty or the university.What goes un-remarked is that while intercessory wastamay solve the individual problems of today for a few, itcomes at the price of organizational gains at this privateGulf University and others for the many, tomorrow.29

307.0 DiscussionThe survival of liberal education institutions in conservativesocieties will depend largely on the flexibility of the variousparties involved to find some common middle ground.Potential solutions to the problems associated withestablishing liberal education can be categorized alongintra-organizational and extra-organizational lines. Inboth instances, decision-makers will need to be insulated,especially at higher levels, from the negative practicesassociated with wasta (e.g. favoritism, cronyism, etc.).Similarly, professionalism and transparency in practiceswill need to be strengthened.At the intra-organizational level, the task is to create alearning organization that can respond effectively and in atimely manner to challenges. Adoption of the followingmeasures should be given serious consideration:(i) Employing more early warning mechanisms to advisestudents of their situation and transform relationswith wasta intercessors that become guarantors ofperformance instead of purveyors of influence.(ii) Promoting critical thinking both in the classroomand in the boardroom. Critical thinking challengesthe irrationalities in hiring and promotion ofprofessionals, admission of students, and other facetsof university operations that arise under currentwasta practices.(iii) Improving teaching methods and encouraging innovationin the classroom.(iv)Fostering loyalty to the organization by providingbenefits and long term employment guarantees basedon performance outcomes (e.g. quality teaching,publications, and contributions to the university’smission).(v) Democratizing the decision-making process forinternal operation of private universities through theinsertion of faculty and administrative representation onuniversity governance boards. This includes consultingfaculty members about academic standards and thehiring or firing in their departments. Additionally,students need to be consulted on issues pertaining toacademic curricula.(vi) Examining means to encourage diversity within thestudent population in Gulf universities.At the extra-organizational level, attention needs to begiven to creating more backward and forwards linkagesthat are involved in the quality assurance process. Whereappropriate, the means to attain this end could involve:(i) Creation of private university councils at the regionalnot just country levels.(ii) Development of new national curricula standards foruniversities and high schools.(iii)Establishment of national entrance and exit examsfor universities and high schools.(iv) Review and stricter enforcement of teacher andadministrator credential standards.(v) Increased feedback and cooperation with regionaland local employers through councils, practicums andother means to ensure that local education is meetinglabor market needs including program specializationamong different schools in the region to removeunneeded duplication of programs.The above proposed suggestions aside for a moment, thetouchstone to any proposed solution resides in renderingan organizational structure that enables private universitiesto both function effectively and compete efficiently.Transforming intercessory wasta is key to promotingboth academic quality and competitiveness. Takingsteps to democratize the institution will help addressorganizational learning needs and pre-empt some of theworst of the potential organizational ills that could besetwestern style liberal educational institutions in the future.This process begins with improving communicationamong all concerned and involving faculty in the majordecisions, at a minimum.In the longer run, observers believe that higher academicstandards will enable Gulf universities to attract betterqualified professional faculty, administration and bettermotivated students with higher academic standards andachievements. Conversely, lowering the academic barwill cause these universities to be magnets for poorerperforming student affecting a change in the institutions,themselves, where they function like diploma millscranking out degrees with limited employment prospects.As this paper has attempted to demonstrate, the promotionof quality education and the maintenance of intercessorywasta under current arrangements are intrinsicallycontradictory and each carries a steep price tag. While thereare still prices to pay, metaphorically speaking, it mightjust be possible to employ wasta in the service of westernliberal education’s aims if adequate attention is paid to thecontext that wasta operates in. If the wasta intercessorbecomes the guarantor of student performance outcomesearly on and organizational learning is fostered in thecontext of a system of backward and forward linkages

for quality assurance, an organizational structure mightbe created that would accommodate western liberal artseducation in a traditional setting.8.0 Discussion Questions:Having briefly examined some potential solutions, variousquestions remain:1. Is the current course being taken by newly establishedprivate Gulf universities leading to desirable outcomes?If not, is the course reversible? To what extent are theabove proposals for improving the current situation plausible?2. Can private universities with their current structuresface up to the serious academic challenges that lieahead without addressing wasta? Do the solutions liesimply in reversing the priority of the objectives ofmaximizing financial gains and academic quality?3. Convention dictates that higher academic standardsenable a university to attract better qualified professionalfaculty and administration as well as students with higheracademic standards who are eager to learn. Can privateGulf universities maintain quality education and stillattract customers? Is it possible to have both?Alternately, will enrollment quotas be met at the expense ofacademic standards?4. Can liberal western-style education be adapted in theArabian Gulf and circumvent an all or nothing adoptionpremise?References1. Abbott, Andrew, “Welcome to the University ofChicago, The Aims of Education Address” (for theclass of 2006), Sept 26, 2002, University of Chicago.2. Al-Khaldi, Khalil, “Replace Incompetent Top Brassat Ministry of Education”, Arab Times, January 20, 2005.3. AAC&U (Association of American Colleges andUniversities), Statement on Liberal Learning, 1998.http://www.aacu.org/About/statement/liberal_learning.cfm4. Bagheri, Khosrow and Zohreh Khosrawi, “The IslamicConcept of Education Reconsidered”, American Journal ofIslamic Social Sciences no, 40/ 23, 2006.5. Arab Human Development Report (2003 and 2004),United Nations Development Programme (UNDP.Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development.6. Bronson, Rachel, “Beyond Containment in the PersianGulf ”, Orbis, April 01, 2001.http://www.cfr.org/publication/3944/ beyond_containment_in_the_persian_gulf.html7. Cassidy, Thomas Jr., “Education in the Arab States:Preparing to Compete in the Global Economy”.http://www.weforum.org/pdf/Global_Competitiveness_Reports/Reports/AWCR8. Coffman, James, “Current Issues in Higher Educationin the Arab World”, International Higher Education,Spring1996. http:www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News04/textcy5.html9. Coffman, James, “Higher Education in the Gulf: Privatizationand Americanization”, International Higher Education,Fall 2003. http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News33/text009.htm.10. Cordesman, Anthony H., “Demographics and the ComingYouth Explosion in the Gulf ”, Center for Strategicand International Studies, 1998. http://www.csis.org/stratassessment/reports/demograp.pdf11. Cunningham, Robert and Yasin Sarayrah, “Tamingwasta to achieve development”, Arab Studies Quarterly,Summer 1994.12. Derhally, Massoud A. “Gulf Embarks on AmericanStyle of Education”, Middle East Online, November13, 2003. http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/qatar/?id=778531

3213. Dewey, John, “Rationality in Education”, SocialFrontier, December, 1936, Vol. III, No. 21, pp. 71-73.14. Ducasse, C. J., “Liberal Education and the College Curriculum”,The Journal of Higher Education, Volume. XV, No. 1,January, 1944: pp1-10.15. Ennis, Robert H., ”Critical Thinking: What is it?”.http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-yearbook/92_docs/Ennis.HTM16. Findlow, Sally, “Global and local tensions in an ArabGulf state: Conflicting Values in UAE Higher Education”,Paper presented at a conference held by the EducationPolicy Research Group at Keele University with thetheme “Traveling Policy/Local Spaces: Globalisation,Identities and Education Policy in Europe”, 27-29June, 2001. http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ed/ events/conf-pdf/cPaperFindlow2.pdf17. Halstead, J.M., “An Islamic Concept of Education”,Contemporary Education, 2004, Vol. 40, No. 4, pp.517-29.18. Hutchins, Robert, “What is the Job of Our Colleges?Hutchins calls for an Intellectual Discipline” NewYork Times Magazine, March 7, 1937, pp. 1-2, 25.http://wwwditext.com/hutchins/times37.html19. Kandil, Heba, “Quataris Get Top US Education AtHome”, Arab Times, Saturday, May 1, 2004.20. Kendall, Martha B. “Mitigating Circumstances”,Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly, September1991, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 95-10121. Mazawi, Andre Elias, “War, Geopolitics, and UniversityGovernance in the Arab States”, International HigherEducation, Summer, 2004. http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News36/text004.htm22. Mortimer, Adler, “What is Liberal Education”.http://www.ditext.com/adler/wle.html23. Neilson, William, “What is the Job of Our Colleges?Nielson calls for Personality Development”, NewYork Times Magazine, March 7, 1937, pp. 1-2, 25.http://www.ditext.com/hutchins/times37.html24. Philips, Abu Ameenah Bilal, “General Educationfrom the Islamic Perspective”, 2001.http://www.bilalphilips.com/abouthim/artic01e.htm25. Shaw, Ken, “Traditional Society and ModernTeaching”,Teacher Development, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1998.26. Speicher, Ann, “AAU Survey on International Studentsand Faculty”, Association of American UniversitiesNews, November, 14, 2002. http://www.aau.edu/homeland/Visa.html27. Straub, Detmar W., Karen D. Loch, and Carole E.Hill, “Transfer of Information Technology to the ArabWorld: A Test of Cultural Influence Modeling”, AdvancedTopics in Global Information Management, 2003.http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=96019228. Sultana, Ronald G., “Higher Education in theMediterranean: The University Between Tradition andModernity”. http://www.unifr.ch/jpg/ecodoc/conferences/DocuPDF_Conf_Inter/Sultana.pdf29. Thompson, Susan C., “Teachers Give Bad Grades toU. of Missouri-linked school in Kuwait”, The Arbiter,January 29, 2004. http://www.arbiteronline.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2004/01/29/4018c47fed3de30. Zapf, Wofgang, Modernization Theory-and theNon-Western World Paper presented to the conference“Comparing Processes of Modernization”, Universityof Potsdam, December 15-21,2003

RethinkingEntrepreneurship:Integration in a LiberalEducation ContextM. Nauman Farooqi and Rosemary PolegatoAbstractThis paper describes a fundable, long-term strategy whichincorporates the study and practice of entrepreneurshipinto the student experience at a high-quality liberal educationundergraduate university. Parts of the program arealready delivered by a business department and madeavailable to students in other programs through well-developedlinkages with other disciplines. The program is based onentrepreneurship defined as the willingness to pursuenew product concepts, ideas and processes, and to obtainthe human, material and financial resources necessary toimplement a plan for achieving for-profit and non-profitobjectives. The context for the entrepreneurial activity maybe the creation of a start-up organization or the pursuit ofgrowth for existing small, medium or large organizationsacross a variety of industries and non-profit organizations.Thus, entrepreneurship is not just an end result, but anorientation (or attitude) that is part of how an individualrecognizes and approaches the development of ideas inany type of organizational setting. This conceptualizationand operationalization requires a dedicated, resource-basedfocus on entrepreneurship. More specifically, the recastingrequires leadership through contributions to curriculumdevelopment, the scholarship of teaching entrepreneurship(i.e., pedagogy of experiential entrepreneurship),and service to the larger community in collaborationwith business and government bodies. A long-term,capacity-building, sustainable program that is situatedwithin an existing business department is envisioned.Rethinking Entrepreneurship: Integration in aLiberal Education ContextThis paper describes a fundable, long-term strategy whichincorporates the study and practice of entrepreneurshipinto the student experience at a high-quality liberaleducation undergraduate university. The program wouldbe delivered by a business department and made availableto students in other programs through well-developedlinkages with other disciplines. The approach is in line withthe opportunities afforded by the university’s setting, whichbuilds on the track record of the Commerce Departmentin cultivating entrepreneurship, and which augmentsresources that presently exist in the department.What is Entrepreneurship?The underlying concept of entrepreneurship is a departurefrom the conventional association of entrepreneurshipsolely with small business, and also a departure from thenotion that entrepreneurship be taught in one to threeisolated courses in the business curriculum.Entrepreneurship is the willingness to pursue newproduct concepts, ideas and processes, and to obtainthe human, material and financial resources necessary toimplement a plan for achieving for-profit and non-profitobjectives. The context for the entrepreneurial activitymay be the creation of a start-up organization or thepursuit of growth for existing small, medium, or largeorganizations across a variety of industries and non-profitorganizations. Thus, entrepreneurship is viewed not justas an end result, but as an orientation (or attitude) thatis part of how an individual recognizes and approachesthe development of ideas in any type of organizationalsetting. A bank employee who, for example, designs a newinvestment package for a high net worth customer can bejust as entrepreneurial as a young graduate who opens anoutdoor store in an under-serviced market. Both recognizeopportunities and gather resources to package theirideas in a competitive setting. Thus, an entrepreneurialorientation encompasses not only knowledge (e.g., how tostructure financing, how to bring a product to market,how to analyze the competition …), but entrepreneurialskills (e.g., how to present ideas, how to deal with fundingagencies …) and entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviors (e.g.,confidence, risk-taking, adapting to conditions, actionoriented…). This multi-faceted view recognizes thebroad scope of an entrepreneurial orientation in action,rather than limit it to “bums in [course] seats”.Towards an Experiential Entrepreneurship ModelThe pedagogical approach that provides the educationalfoundation for the Entrepreneurship Model integratesKolb’s (1984) experiential learning model and Mitchell andJames’ (1989) perspective of the opportunity created througha dynamic interactive relationship between an individualand the environment. Joplin’s (1995) suggestion thatinteraction with one’s environment requires planned reflectiveactivities enhanced the philosophy and approach used.Experiential pedagogy is a participatory method oflearning which involves a variety of a person’s mentalcapabilities. Scholars, such as Corsun, Inman and Muller(1995) and Kolb, Rubin and McIntyre (1974), quote anancient Confucius statement, "I hear and I forget; I seeand I remember; I do and I understand," to convey thefoundation of this pedagogy.33

34What is experiential Learning?The concept of experiential learning was developed byDavid Kolb (1971). Kolb believed learning is a processwhereby knowledge is formed through the transformationof experience (Vince, 1998). Kolb introduced a learningcycle, which is one of the most well known illustrationsin management education. It is important in expressingthe nature of experiential learning, and has become asignificant subject in the experiential business environment.Many different perspectives argue whether Kolb’s modelmatched the reality of how well people actually learnthrough experience.Alon and Cannon (2000) defined experiential learningsimply as, “learning by doing”. O’Banion (1997) statedthat the experiential approach provided discovery andinvolvement for students as they collaborate in the learningprocess and assume responsibility for the decisions theymake. According to Kolb (1984), experiential learningis a process in which knowledge is created through thetransformation of experience. Hoover (1974) statedthat, “Experiential learning exists when a personallyresponsible participant(s) cognitively, affectively, andbehaviorally processes knowledge, skills, and/or attitudesin a learning situation characterized by a high level of activeinvolvement.” The Association for Experiential Educationdefines experiential education as, “a philosophy andmethodology in which educators purposefully engage withlearners in direct experience and focus reflection in orderto increase knowledge, develop skills and clarify values.”Specht and Sandlin (1991) explained that "experientiallearning focuses on ‘doing’ in addition to the ‘hearing’and ‘seeing’ that occur in a traditional lecture class."They also believe that experiential learning involves astructured activity wherein material and principles whichare encountered are incorporated and applied to new anddynamic situations.There is widespread support of the benefits of experientialpedagogy. Toncar and Cudmore (2000) found thatexperiential learning activities increased the level ofstudent motivation and also long-term retention. Wynd(1989) stated that “teaching methods that actively engagestudents in the learning process enhance student learningand development”. Gaidis and Andrews (1990) suggestedstudents learn better due to the active involvement withconcrete experiences.Bridging the gap. According to Finney (2004) teachingundergraduate business students is challenging as theyhave little or no business experience which would allowthem to link theory with real-world practice. Experientiallearning allows business educators to bridge this gap. Areview of literature in this area suggests that businesseducators are incorporating this pedagogy actively andhave been achieving positive results. One of the reasonsfor the increased interest in experiential learning inbusiness education is due to the fact that the pedagogyallows for development of student’s “real world” skills(Alon & Canon, 2000).Experiential pedagogy has been applied across variousbusiness disciplines. Finney (2004), Bobbit (2000), Alonand Cannon (2000), and Gremler et al. (2000) describedseveral successful applications in the field of marketing.Falkenberg, Russell and Ricker (2000) reported on theapplication of the experiential approach in a projectmanagement course. Hogan (1992) reported on theapplication in an organizational behavior course. Gruca(2000) described an experiential application which integratedthe disciplines of marketing, finance, and technology.According to Finney (2004) there is an increased levelof awareness and support for the development ofexperiential-based courses in business. According to Finney,the results obtained thus far have been encouraging.Experiential learning in practice. An experientiallearning environment differs from a traditional classroomenvironment by placing students in situations that allowthem to experience the challenges and processes ofpractical life. Goal-orientation, teamwork, decision-making,observation, thinking, and action-taking are major areasthat are developed in an experiential learning environment.Experiential learning integrates theoretical knowledgewith practical acumen as students are required to workin teams and demonstrate leadership skills. Communityorganizations, government departments, and privatecorporations now recognize that experiential learningregimens have a significant, positive impact on thedevelopment of learners.Experiential learning has become popular in manycountries around the world, including Canada.Experiential learning has been used in work settings,military training, professional certification, independentstudy, and entrepreneurial situations. For instance, inthe workplace, companies are using experiential learningin the training of employees, who are made to activelyexperience, explore, and develop target skills and behaviors.

This type of training leads to enhanced productivitywithin the organization.Although experiential learning in entrepreneurshipmay take place in numerous academic settings, veryfew courses and programs have been documented andevaluated. An article by Shawn P. Daly documented,“Student-operated Internet business: True experientiallearning in entrepreneurship and retail-management,”where students carried out their own business plans,product development and marketing operations.It also includes feedback from students and observationsand recommendations concerning the success of thestudent-operated business. (Daly, 2001). Anotherexample is the University of Calgary’s MBA program thatdocumented a recent MBA course offered to studentswho “create and grow their own expertise or lead andsustain growth and development in an existing enterprise”(Nikiforuk, 1997). Documentation of experiential learningcourses like these provides valuable information andopportunity for schools and instructors to use as a guidelinefor their course initiatives. The feedback and suggestionsthat schools offer from their previous experienceprovide constructive insight and guidance on how toprovide students with the greatest learning experience.Another example close to the topic of this paper is theEntrepreneurship and New Venture Creation (ENVC)course at Mount Allison University for students whoare seeking to gain hands-on experience, while learningthe complexity of running a student-operated business.Information from all aspects of the course is compiled,and suggestions for improvement in particular areas,such as the student evaluation process, are provided.The dynamics of this experiential learning approachhave been successful as students build on their skills,such as teamwork, leadership and problem-solving skills.Documentation of the student’s feedback from theirpersonal experience with the ENVC course at MountAllison also suggests improvements for the course infollowing years.The entrepreneurial venture of learning by experienceclearly has benefits in ways that students understandthe complexity of running their own organization.They employ a wider perspective within the businessworld, and learn the importance of networking within theircommunity. The everyday classroom learning is important,but does not provide the same type of skills that studentsdeveloped from these experiences. Experiential learningin entrepreneurship is successful in many educationalinstitutes that would agree to the importance of studentsengaging in such practices (Daly, 2001).In summary, Kolb (1978 & 1985) created the LearningStyles Inventory (LSI)) because he was not satisfiedwith the traditional methods of teaching managementprofessionals. His work helped people understand diverselearning processes and acknowledge that each personlearns in a different way. People felt the need for thistype of learning methodology because they understoodthe significance of integrated knowledge and experiencethat could be applied to real-life situations. Experientiallearning has been found to be friendly to the brain, mind,body, heart, and soul (Toncar & Cudmore, 2000; Wynd,1989; Gaidis & Andrews, 1990).Experiential pedagogy is a perfect match for theentrepreneurship model of interest in this paper. Thereview of the literature supports the ExperientialEntrepreneurship Model shown in Figure 1. Activitiesin the curriculum delivered through experiential learningapproaches lead to the integration of entrepreneurial skills,knowledge, attitudes and behaviors. Course feedback andpeer evaluation provide opportunities for summativeand formative evaluation. Recognition of success isevident in student awards, and success in business plancompetitions, in business and in co-curricular activities,as well as in teaching awards, faculty engagement in theattendant experiential pedagogy, research, funding, andthe ability to attract entrepreneurial speakers.The University ContextThe mission statement of the university reads as follows:Mount Allison University is committed to the creation anddissemination of knowledge in a community of higher learning,centered on [2250] undergraduate students, in an intimate andharmonious environment. Our teaching, research and creativeenterprise are combined with extracurricular activities, in a liberaleducation tradition, that emphasizes development of the wholeperson. This integrated approach involves collaborative efforts amongall members of the University community and leads to superiorscholarship, cultural understanding and appreciation, personal andsocial maturation, leadership development and informed citizenship.(Academic Calendar, 2006-7, p. 1)Bachelor degrees are offered in Arts, Commerce, FineArts, Music, and Science. The University “shapes leaderswho are critical thinkers, problem solvers and creativeparticipants in society” (Academic Calendar, 2006-7, p. 1).35

36The mission of the University and its setting in a smalltown (pop. 5000) in the southeastern corner of theprovince of New Brunswick offer several advantages forthose interested in the development of entrepreneurialcapability among students. First, the relatively opencurriculum fosters multiple ways of thinking. Any student,for example, has access to courses in all disciplines andinterdisciplinary programs of the three faculties of Arts,Science, and Social Sciences. Thus, students in Commerce(located in the Faculty of Social Sciences) intermingle inCommerce courses with students who are doing a majorin areas as diverse as Anthropology, Music, and Biology.Students in other degree programs may do a Major orMinor in Commerce. Secondly, the relatively small sizeof the student body encourages interaction amongstudents within and outside the classroom. Third, withabout 95 percent of courses scheduled between 8:30am and 5:30 pm, students have ample time to meet forcourses projects, as well as engage in extracurricularand co-curricular activities. Fourth, the reputation ofthe University attracts many national and international,high-energy, multi-talented students who are able to makea home for themselves in the residential atmosphere.Last, but not least, the town, which has thrivingbusiness and arts sectors is supportive of the University.Some examples of how the advantages of the universitysetting support the entrepreneurial model are as follows:• Students have access to professors for consultation.• Students are able to work in teams. Face-to-faceinteraction is encouraged.• Students have the time-space to handle complexprojects, such as starting a business.• Students can engage in projects that span disciplines,such as start biotechnology companies.• Students can access the resources (e.g., registration,licenses, etc.) needed to set up a business.The Entrepreneurial Footprint in the CommerceDepartmentEntrepreneurship happens through people. Mount Allisonhas long been recognized as a premier university whichbrings together faculty and full-time, undergraduate studentsfrom across the world. These bright, highly respectedpeople come together in a small, residential, interactiveatmosphere. Not surprisingly, big things “happen” atMount Allison, and entrepreneurial activity is no exception.In 1995-1996, the Commerce Department introduceda course called Entrepreneurship and New VentureManagement, followed by the introduction of SmallBusiness Management in 1997-1998. These courseswere taught (often in rotation) by a professor whosubsequently became the first Director of the DobsonCentre. (The Dobson Foundation funds a number ofcenters dealing with entrepreneurship across the country.)His interests were in micro-enterprise, specifically homebasedbusinesses; there were research collaborationswith a member of the Rural and Small Towns Program.Over time, collaborations between the Dobson Centre andthe Commerce Department were increased in focus andeven stability. Introduction to Entrepreneurship (addedin 2001-2002), was taught by the Director, who alsocollaborated with Commerce professors on the BusinessPlan Competition and on various aspects of the operationof the Dobson Centre (e.g., invitations to speaker events,case competition, micro-lending projects…). From theperspective of the Commerce Department the profile of theDobson Centre was certainly higher than it had ever been;there were shared successes and teaching collaborations.Within the Commerce Department, there has been a surgein interest in entrepreneurship over the past five years,due to the addition of new faculty members, the presenceof capable students, and the emergence of university andcommunity collaborations. Some examples of ExperientialEntrepreneurship that have already been realized are listedin the Appendix. Obvious examples are specific courses,such as Entrepreneurship and New Venture Creation, andthe experiential pedagogy that provides the underpinningfor their delivery. External competitions provided venuesto hone presentation skills and reality checks on businessplans. More unusual is the opportunity for students toextend their learning within the context of IndependentStudy and Special Topics courses. (The course outlinesfor these courses must be approved by the Department.)Functional courses, especially in the marketing area,also contain components, such as assignments andprojects, which contribute to the development of anentrepreneurial orientation. Curricular activities that spantwo or more courses, such as field trips that highlightbusinesses that are new or grew from a small start-up,also provide capacity for entrepreneurship. In the caseof the field trip to Hewlett-Packard in Boston, studentsraised a substantial proportion of the funding required.Occasions for guest speakers are also opportunitiesto illustrate entrepreneurship in action, as are eventssponsored by student associations and projects supportedthrough student leadership development programs.

In short, Mount Allison students have a number of diverseopportunities to gain exposure to entrepreneurshipknowledge in the classroom, as well as opportunitiesto develop skills and behaviors through actual businessventures and case competitions. In a very real sensethe development of these entrepreneurial activities isentrepreneurial in itself, in that faculty saw opportunities,students and collaborators rose to the challenge, andexciting and productive ventures emerged. The capacityfor this activity developed naturally (incubated, if youwill) within the hopper of the Commerce Departmentwith the addition of new faculty, capable students, andinterested community and university partners.Going to the Next Level of GrowthThe Commerce Department has already demonstratedthe capacity to foster interest and productivity inentrepreneurial activity. The present capacity level willlikely continue, but it is probably near capping due tocompeting academic interests, university processes, thesmall number of faculty involved and limited resources.Nevertheless, it is natural to look to the CommerceDepartment to play a leadership role in cultivating anentrepreneurial orientation within the department, acrossother disciplines, and within the larger community.The next level of growth will need a dedicated,resource-based focus on entrepreneurship. This recastingwill require some restructuring of the Commerce program,focused commitment of faculty members, directed energy,funding beyond “normal” operations, and communicationabout this activity within and outside the Universitywith business and government partners. The goal is toadvance the reputation of Mount Allison University inentrepreneurship with a respected, sustainable approach.The Commerce Department can provide leadershipthrough contributions to curriculum development, thescholarship of teaching entrepreneurship (i.e., pedagogyof entrepreneurship), and service to the larger communityin collaboration with business and government bodies.Leadership will be based on the strengths and the trackrecord of faculty members, the Department’s interestin experiential learning, the support of alumni, and theon-going opportunity to engage motivated, full-timeundergraduate students.To go to the next level of growth (to expand capacity),the Department proposes that the following to beimplemented in two phases:Phase I:• Direct entrepreneurship at Mount Allison Universityfrom within the Commerce Department. Include thedevelopment of innovative pedagogy and appliedresearch in the mandate. Pursue a niche in experientialeducation in the entrepreneurship area, e.g., Financinginnovation and innovation in the performing and finearts sectors. (These two areas of interest exist already inthe Department.)o Mechanisms: Appoint a Director of the DobsonProgram in Entrepreneurship with the mandate todirect and monitor entrepreneurial education. TheDirector will oversee the program and work with theProgram Manager to implement the program components.o Appoint a [Named] Chair of Entrepreneurship withthe mandate to foster and contribute to pedagogicaldevelopment and research in the area of entrepreneurship.o Hire a full-time Program Manager to handle the details ofprogram implementation, including working withstudents on the components of the program.• Develop existing courses in entrepreneurship, such asComm 2361 Introduction to Entrepreneurship and Comm3361 Entrepreneurship and New Venture Creation,and new courses, such as Financing of Innovation,Special Topics courses and capstone courses.o Mechanisms: Curriculum development within the program.o Build sustainable tutoring infrastructure for Comm1001 Introduction to Business to support entrepreneurialcomponents in this highly subscribed course.• Develop teaching linkages with other departments atthe University in the arts, science, Music and FineArts, and with the McCain Fellow during 2006-2007.o Mechanisms: Develop course modules on variousaspects of entrepreneurship which can be adaptedacross departments and programs. These interdisciplinarymodules may be student-led and co-developed withfaculty from other disciplines.• Continue to provide stipendiary support for coursesin entrepreneurship.• Continue with micro-lending project.o Mechanisms: As established by the Dobson Centre.• Continue with the Nicol Business Plan Competition.• Set up a web site.37

38• Develop outreach with students through ACE(Advancing Canadian Entrepreneurship) to augmentin-kind support from the University.• Establish a speaker and reading series, named TheEntrepreneurial Mind, which highlights successfulentrepreneurs and innovation across a variety of fields.• Establish a Student Award for Entrepreneurship.Phase II:• Establish an Entrepreneur-in-Residence program.• Develop an internship for summer and internationalopportunities.• Seminar Series (outreach).• Conference on Entrepreneurship (national & internationalaudience). Bring young entrepreneurs from acrossthe world together.SummaryThe implementation of the Experiential EntrepreneurshipModel (EEM) requires a long-term strategy which willincorporate the study and practice of entrepreneurshipinto the student experience at Mount Allison University.Due to the nature of University work, the CommerceDepartment is interested in a long-term, capacity-building,sustainable program that is situated within the Department.The structure and intent of the EEM assumes that thisentrepreneurship program will be sustained by adequateresources well after the five-year implementation phase.ReferencesAlon, I., & Cannon, N. (2000). Internet-based experientiallearning in international marketing: The case of Globalview.org. Online Information Review, 24(5), 349.Bobbit, L.M., Inks, S.A., Kemp, K.J., & Mayo, D.T. (2000).Integrating marketing courses to enhance team-basedexperiential learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 22(1), 15-20.Corsun, D., Inman, C., and Muller, C. (1995). Developingmanagers in the classroom: learning about learning fromstudent perceptions of a real-time simulation. Hospitalityand Tourism Educator, 7(2), 37-44.Daly, S. P. (2001) Student-Operated Internet Businesses:True Experiential Learning in Entrepreneurial and RetailManagement. Journal of Marketing Education. 23, 204-215.Falkenberg, L., Russell, R., & Ricker, L. (2000). Linkingtheory with practice: Undergraduate project managementwith school-age children. Journal of Marketing Education, 22(6), 745.Finney, S. (2004). Bringing marketing to life: Usingexperiential learning techniques to teach undergraduatebusiness students. Atlantic Universities Teaching ShowcaseProceedings, (p. 205-217), Volume IX.Gaidis, W., & Andrews, J.C. (1990). An experiential approachfor integrating ethical analysis into marketing coursework.Journal of Marketing Education, 12 (Summer), 3-9.Gremler, D.D., Hoffman, K.D., Keaveney, S.M., & Wright,L.K. (2000). Experiential learning exercises in servicesmarketing courses. Journal of Marketing Education, 22(1),35-44.Gruca, T.S. (2000). The IEM movie box office market:Integrating marketing and finance using electronicmarkets. Journal of Marketing Education, 22(1), 5.Hogan, C. (1992). You are not studying alone-introducingexperiential learning into the teaching of organizationalbehavior. Education & Training, 34 (4), 14.Hoover, J.D. (1974). “Experiential Learning inConceptualization and Definition,” The Proceedingsof the First Annual National Conference on BusinessGaining and Experiential Learning.

Joplin, L. (1995). On defining experiential education. InK. Warren, M. Sakofs, and J. Hunt, Jr. (Eds.), The theory ofexperiential education. (p. 15-22 ). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.Kolb, D.A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learningprocess. Working Paper #535-71, Sloan School of Management,Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Kolb, D. A. (1985) LSI Learning Style Inventory: Self ScoringInventory and Interpretation Booklet Boston, MA: McBerand Company.Kolb, D. A., & Smith, D. M. (1985) User's Guide for theLearning Style Inventory. Boston,MA: McBer and Company.Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as thesource of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice Hall.Kolb, D.A., Rubin, I.M., & McIntyre, J.M. (1974).Organizational psychology: An experiential approach (2nd Ed.).Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.Mitchell, T. R., & James, L. R. (1989). Conclusions andfuture directions. Academy of Management Review, 14, 401-407.McAuthur, Angeline W., et al. (2001). “Creating andSelling Postcards: An Integrative ProjectClass.” Journal of Management Education. 25: 308-324.Nikiforuk, A. (1997). Enterprise U. Canadian Business. 70, 30-35.O’Banion, T. (1997). A learning college for the 21st century. WashingtonD.C.: American Association of Community Colleges.Specht, L.B., & Sandlin, P.K. (1991). The differential effects ofexperiential learning activities and traditional lecture classesin accounting. Simulation and Gaming, 22(2), 196—210.Toncar, M.F., & Cudmore, B.V. (2000). The overseas internshipexperience. Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (1), 54-63.Vince, R. (1998). Behind and Beyond Kolb’s Learningcycle. Journal of Management Education, 22 (3), 304-319.Wynd, W.R. (1989). An experiential approach to marketingeducation. Journal of Marketing Education, 11(Summer), 64-71.APPENDIXExamples of Experiential EntrepreneurshipCourses:• Introduction to Entrepreneurship (with support ofDobson Centre)• Small Business Management• Entrepreneurship and New Venture Creation• Independent Study. In 2004-2005, two other students(one in Biology and One in Commerce) were involvedin setting up a biotechnology venture through thiscourse. Another project was conducted by a MountAllison International Exchange student who had donean internship with FAST -- a 5-year-old, award-winningNorwegian software company which conducts businessin Europe, the US and Japan.• Special Topics in Business. In 2005, students fromthe Entrepreneurship and New Venture Creationcourse continued with their project under this course.• New course: Venture Capital and Finance of Innovation.Components of courses:• Fundamentals of Marketing: Students created anddeveloped marketing plans for new products andservices.• Services and Non-profit Marketing: Students worked witha start-up service company.• Marketing Research: Students did market positioningstudies for various new businesses. All teams had actualclients, who received reports and saw presentations.• Current Challenges in Marketing: Field trips includedvisits to a variety of arts organizations, including aBoard of Directors meeting with Live Bait Theatre.Cross-course activities:• Field Trip to Boston 2006: This was a very successfulfield trip to Hewlitt-Packard with 50 students. Thevisit included a day with the US Country manager,David Booth, and executives from the marketing andIT areas. The students were enrolled in HumanResource Management and Global Contextof Business/Business Policy.• Field Trip to Prince Edward Island 2005: This verysuccessful field trip with 49 students included a visitto Diagnostic Chemicals, Diversified MetalsEngineering, Padinox, and PEI Preserves, successfulMaritime businesses which started small. The studentswere enrolled in International Marketing, HumanResource Management, and Business Policy.39

Speakers:• Michael Wilson, CEO of Atlantic Industries Limited,was a guest speaker in the Global Context of Businesscourse. He received an Entrepreneur of the Year awardfrom Ernst & Young in 2005. This privately-ownedengineering company operates globally.• Paul Gilbert, VP of Marketing, Aeroplan, was theguest speaker for Commerce Awards Night 2005.• Mr. Estey (a MTA alumnus) from ACOA was theguest speaker for Commerce Awards Night 2004.The Dobson Centre was also featured on the program.• Bruce McCubbin, Moosehead Breweries, “DevelopingEntrepreneurship,” March 2005.Co-curricular activities:• ACE (Advancing Canadian Entrepreneurship Inc.), across-campus organization.• Commerce Society.40

Figure 1. ExperientialEntrepreneurship ModelActivities in the CurriculumCoursesStand aloneAcross functional areasAcross disciplinesKnowledgeSkillsAssessmentCourse feedbackPeer evaluationProjectsCo-Curricular ActivitiesSpeakersAttitudes&BehaviorRecognitionStudent AwardsSuccess in business plan competitionsStudent success in businessCo-curricular success41FacultyTeaching AwardsConference presentationsJournal ArticlesFundingCGADobsonSpeakers

42You Go Girl!Watching Oprah in KuwaitShaheed Mohammed and Mary QueenAbstractThis study examines motivations and perceptions amongKuwait viewers of the Oprah Winfrey Show. Usingfocus groups as the primary investigative tool, the studyprobes the processes by which viewers from a contextfar different than the target audience of the show adaptthe content to their own needs and lifestyles. Workingfrom an interpretivist approach, the authors attempt topresent explanations of the processes and devices thatreconcile the Oprah universe and the Kuwait reality inviewers’ minds. Analysis is presented from rhetorical andtraditional communications perspectives.Watching Oprah in KuwaitFew media enterprises have been as successful as OprahWinfrey’s talk show and its derivatives. The influenceof the program and the personality around which itrevolves is clear in the United States and in many westerncountries. The extent of this influence may be estimatedfrom television ratings data as well as various otherindicators such as the power of Oprah’s book club andthe popularity of related characters such as Dr. Phil. Thepresent paper investigates the spread of that influenceinto a vastly different social and cultural environment.Literature ReviewThe Oprah phenomenon.The Oprah Winfrey show is broadcast in 122 countries haswon 35 Emmy awards, and has run for 20 seasons (Woing-Ulrich, 2006). The financial success of Oprah Winfrey’smedia empire is measured in dollars and its various mediavehicles are tracked in Nielsen numbers and circulationfigures. Academics have also noticed the power of theOprah factor, for example, Moy, Xenos and Hess (2005)investigated inter alia, political candidates’ appearances onOprah and found that for audience members, watching theshow was associated with increased civic participation.Gersch (1999) investigated the Oprah Winfrey show witha focus on its relationship to class and mobility, using theshow as an example of a talk show in which:“…The host and guests usually serve as role models,implicitly--and sometimes explicitly--holding out thepromise of class mobility. In this context, moving up thesocial ladder is not tied to increased income but rather,once again, to morality and social values.” (p. 276).Gersch (1999) also pointed out that Oprah becomessomething of a personal friend to her viewers. This isknown as parasocial interaction, a point to which we willreturn presently.Peck (1994) analyzed the role of Oprah Winfrey’s talkshow (and Oprah herself) in addressing issues of race inthe United States concluding in part that “…The liberal,therapeutic and religious discourses in the series containutopian sentiments in their quest to find meaningfulbridges across social differences.” (p. 119). Accordingto Peck (1994) Winfrey herself has been described as “acomforting, nonthreatening bridge between black andwhite cultures.” (p. 91).Popular interpretations of Oprah’s influence can be moreextreme, often even taking on religious tones. Walker(2004) writing in the New York Times described theeffects of products and services being “anointed” byOprah. Wong-Ulrich (2006) noted the impact of whatshe termed the Oprah “blessing,” that can mean thedifference between spectacular commercial success anddismal failure. One estimate even suggested that OprahWinfrey influences 20 to 25 percent of all purchases inthe United States (Silverstein and Butman, 2006). Onewebsite that hosts online petitions listed 2184 signaturesrecommending Oprah for the Nobel Peace Prize (www.ipetitions.com, 2007).Not all estimations of the show’s effects are positive, ofcourse, as Abt and Seesholtz (1994) include the OprahWinfrey show in their indictment of the talk show culturein general:“Phil, Sally and Oprah always know best. They take theroles of caring parents, understanding friend, knowingtherapist. They may not have professional credentials togive advice, but they do so freely. Of course, they probablymake considerably more than therapists who still bother toget professional training credentials and licenses.” p. 187.The plethora of concerns and commentaries about OprahWinfrey and her talk show as well as the increasing reach of theglobal television market deem it unsurprising that the impact ofthe show should spread beyond the shores of the United States.What may be surprising, however, is the extent to which Oprahhas taken root in other cultures – particularly in the presentcase, a culture that has often been portrayed as being not onlyvastly different but also as actively hostile to Western influence.

Kuwait – satellite television, cultureKuwait is a small independent oil rich nation-state in theMiddle East. It is bounded by the Arabian Gulf to theEast, Saudia Arabia to its South and West and Iraq in theNorth. The government is a traditional monarchy thoughan elected parliament has been introduced in recent years.Kuwaiti media comprises a mix of government ownedand operated enterprises existing alongside privatemedia outlets. Television is available through terrestrialbroadcasts from Kuwait TV and privately owned Al-Raitelevision. However, the majority of people in Kuwaitreceive their television content from free-to-air and/orsubscription satellite services. Kuwaiti audiences view theOprah Winfrey show on one or more free-to-air stationsavailable on satellite feeds in the area.The Kuwait segmentMuch debate arose among Kuwaiti viewers when asegment on Oprah Winfrey’s talk show in 2004 featureda woman from Kuwait ostensibly describing the life ofKuwaiti women as part of a special feature. For a smalland relatively obscure nation, the simple mention ofKuwait on the Oprah Winfrey show was enough to drawsome attention. Indeed, the arrival of an Oprah cameracrew in the summer of 2004 spurred rumors that Oprahwas going to visit Kuwait (it later turned out that the crewvisited to shoot cover shots for the segment). Questionsand statements on the final segment (aired in October,2004) regarding democracy and women’s voting rights inKuwait caused further controversy, as did the fact that thewoman interviewed just happened to be a member of theruling family (a niece of the Emir).The Kuwait segment was far reaching in its effects notonly in Kuwait but also abroad. Extreme right wingUS commentator Debbie Schlussel (2005) took on thesegment, writing:“Then there's Kuwait. Oprah says it's the only democracyin the Middle East, even though (at the time this was shot)women don't get to vote (they now do--but the vote, forboth genders, is meaningless). Huh? Kuwait is an Islamiccaliphate. It is ruled by an Emir and a royal family (the Al-Sabahs), not to mention religious clerics.” 5This segment is a focal point for all discussions aboutOprah in Kuwait among audiences and investigators asit presented a tangible point of intersection for Kuwaitculture and the Oprah Winfrey Show.Intercultural Communication and Rhetorical ConsiderationsThe impact of foreign media has been a major concernamong media scholars for decades. McPhail (1981) wroteabout “electronic colonialism” while Herbert Schiller(1976) wrote of “communication and cultural domination.”These and numerous studies reveal concerns aboutdetrimental roles of foreign media in the cultural and socialmilieu of developing societies. Long before Oprah wasavailable via satellite in Kuwait, communication scholarswere interested in the impact of foreign content and theextent to which content originating in culturally dominantcountries posed threats not only to cultural maintenancebut also to social and economic development.While the political economy of cross-border media hasreceived much attention, there has also been much debateabout the cultural dimension of this exchange. The impactof foreign media portrayals has been widely examined(Tan, Tan & Gibson, 2003) with an enduring concern forthe extent to which foreign media can be said to influencereceiving audiences and their respective cultures.Research QuestionsThe nature of the present investigation was primarilyinvestigatory. Little previous data existed on the specifictopic of interest – audience reception of the OprahWinfrey Show in Kuwait. Few studies existed on mediareception of foreign television by audiences in the states ofthe Arabian Gulf area. This situation necessitated an openapproach and precluded hypothesis testing. We thereforeposed a number of open ended research questions.We were interested in what attracts audiences to theOprah Winfrey show in a country so far removed fromUS market. We therefore posed research question 1 as:RQ1: What are the reasons that Kuwaiti viewers give forwatching the Oprah Winfrey show?We were also concerned with the viewers’ perceptionsof Oprah Winfrey and the program and how theyreconcile the cultural differences between themselvesand the show’s host and content. Thus we posedresearch question 2 as:RQ2a:How do Kuwaiti viewers perceive culturaldifferences between themselves and the contentof the Oprah Winfrey show?RQ2b:How do Kuwaiti viewers reconcile culturaldifferences between themselves and the contentof the Oprah Winfrey show?43

44MethodThe primary method of data gathering in the presentstudy was the focus group discussion. Focus groups arewidely used in the social sciences to gather qualitative data,particularly where the salient issues being investigated arenot yet fully defined (Krueger and Casey, 2000). The focusgroup discussion provides information in the form of thetext of the discussion (what is said by participants) as wellas non-verbal cues (how things are said by participants)and even silence or avoidance of certain topics (Schensuland LeCompte, 1999).A pilot focus group discussion with self – selected participantsfrom a private liberal arts college in Kuwait was conductedin March of 2007. Data and insights from the first focusgroup were collected and analyzed to guide preparation ofquestion guides and protocols for the main FGD sessionwhich took place in April of 2007.The main focus group discussion was recorded on audiotape and moderated by one of the authors. Though Englishproficiency is a pre-requisite for entry and progress at theschool, and the English ability of all participants was quitehigh, an Arabic speaking confederate was present to assistin the event of language difficulties. This was thought tobe necessary particularly with regard to emotionally orotherwise sensitive or delicate issues which were likely toarise during the discussions.Participants were recruited through a combination ofadvertisements and class invitations with the informationthat they would be asked to talk about the Oprah WinfreyShow. Class credit was offered as an inducement andrefreshments were served at the sessions in keeping withcommon practice and local custom.The resulting texts of the focus groups were analyzed byboth authors independently and main themes determined.The separate analyses of primary themes were thencompared to establish the mutually agreed items andinclusion decisions on other items were made by negotiation.Results/DiscussionParticipants in the focus group consisted mainly ofregular Oprah Winfrey viewers, though some participantsexpressed reservations about the show and its host. Allhad viewed the show at some point in time. The reasonsfor watching the Oprah Winfrey show were not unrelatedto participants’ perceptions of Oprah herself. Someparticipants expressed, for example, the view that Oprahwas a very powerful personality who had a reputation forinfluencing major decisions in US society and related thisto their reasons for watching.The Kuwait segment was mentioned in the discussionwith some debate among participants about both theaccuracy and impact of that segment. Several participantsquestioned the choice of a member of the ruling familyto represent the country.Parasocial interaction was evident in the discourse of thefocus group. Several participants expressed not only theirpositive personal views of the host, but also the notionthat they felt an affinity for her. One participant tookcare to mention that “I don’t know her personally but…”suggesting an awareness that the impression of parasocialinteraction might be gleaned from her comments.On the issue of reconciliation of differences, participantsshowed a tendency to seek out the commonalities betweenthemselves and the host. One participant explained thatshe identifies with Oprah because Oprah tells storiesabout her battle with her weight and she can identify withthat battle. In seeking the commonalities, participants alsorevealed that they were aware of the differences – notingthat in Oprah’s interview with a Muslim person she askedwhether Islam teaches belief in God. Some participantssuggested that this kind of ignorance could not be blamedon the show but rather took the blame themselves. Oneparticipant noted that if Oprah is ignorant about Muslims,Arabs, and Islam, it becomes the task of these people tocommunicate with the Oprah Winfrey Show and ask themto focus on these groups and issues.This final point raises numerous issues about the processof rationalizing the obvious cultural differences betweenthe content and the audience of Oprah in Kuwait. Weare drawn to Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance inwhich people are able to hold contradictory ideas aboutsomething by a process of adjusting their expectations.Yet, there are other possible explanations, including thepossibility that the paradigm of media effects and theconcept of cultural imperialism need to be reviewed. Interms of media theory, there is tremendous support onthe one hand for the uses and gratifications approach thatsuggests an active audience, taking only what it needs fromthe media. On the other hand, the fact that our participantsmake adjustments and allowances for Oprah, even takingthe blame for her ignorance at times, suggests somethingof a cultural and social impact that underlies their choices.

ReferencesAbt, V. & Seesholtz, M. (1994) The Shameless Worldof Phil, Sally and Oprah: Television Talk Shows andthe Deconstructing of Society. The Journal of PopularCulture 28 (1), 171–191.Gersch, B, (1999)Class in Daytime Talk Television. PeaceReview; Jun99, Vol. 11 Issue 2, p275, 7pWalker, R. (2004) THE WAY WE LIVE NOW: 12-19-04:CONSUMED; Anointed by Oprah, Late Edition - Final,Section 6, Page 34, Column 1, The New York Times,Wong-Ulrich, C. (2006). The Oprah effect. EssenceMagazine, October, p. 190Krueger, R. A., and M. A. Casey 2000. Focus groups:A Practical Guide for Applied Research (3rdedition.)Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage.McPhail, T. L. (1981). Electronic colonialism: The futureof international broadcasting and communication. BeverlyHills: Sage.Moy, P., Xenos, M. and Hess, V. (2005) Communication andCitizenship: Mapping the Political Effects of Infotainment.Mass Communication & Society; Spring2005, Vol. 8 Issue2, p111-131Oprah Winfrey for Nobel Peace Prize (n.d.). Retrievedfrom http://www.ipetitions.com/petition/oprah_4_peace/signatures.html. on March 13, 2007.Peck, J. (1994). Cultural Critique, 27, Talk about racism:Framing a popular discourse of race on Oprah Winfrey.(Spring 1994) 89-126.45Schensul, J. J., and LeCompte, M. D (Eds) (1999).Ethnographer’s Toolkit. WalnutCreek, Calif: Altamira Press.Schiller, H. I. (1976). Communication and CulturalDomination, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.Schlussel, D. (2005). July 29, 2005 Oprah Sucks Alert.Retrieved from http://www.debbieschlussel.com/archives/2005/07/oprah_sucks_ale.html, March 13, 2007.Silverstein, M. and Butman, J. (2006). Treasure Hunt:Inside the Mind of the New Consumer. New York:Portfolio Penguin Group.Tan, A., Tan, G, and Gibson, T. (2003). Socialization effectsof American television on international audiences. InMichael G. Elasmar (Editor) The impact of internationaltelevision: A paradigm shift. New Jersey: LawrenceEarlbaum Associates, pp-29-38.

46How Far Is A Small TruthFrom A Huge Lie?On Making CorruptionAn HonorRalph PalliamAbstractHow often have lies been converted into half truths? Undoubtedlycorruption is a great cause of annoyance and misfortune. If goodgovernance is the hallmark of progress, corruption is its bane. Therecent spate of corporate scandals worldwide has raised seriousconcerns surrounding governance standards. The credibility of chiefexecutive officers, the accounting profession and the chief financialofficers is in serious doubt as stakeholders question their ethicalobligations and professional standards. A universally accepted factis that accounting standards are required to establish benchmarksfor certain accounting complexities and also to ensure that there arechecks and balances in their implementation The sudden collapseof major corporations reveals the extent to which the accountingprofession was actively involved in manipulating financial resultsand financial positions within the confines of generally acceptedaccounting practices. It has become clear that performance andprogress statements that do not accurately capture the reality ofan entity affect numerous stakeholders. With specific reference tofinancial intermediation, surplus spending units (providers of funds)and deficit spending units (borrowers of funds) were enticed intomisallocating scarce financial resources. On the other hand longserving and committed company employees were duped into providingtheir skills to entities that had a limited future. Moreover, there isan element of distrust that pervades modern commerce and moderncommerce has yet to recover from the stigma of deceit. The questionthat the affected public is asking: What lies ahead?IntroductionOne of the pre-occupation of academics and organizationscommitted to the pursuit of ethical and moral conduct ofbusiness is the communication of a language of businessthat is consistent with widely acceptable policies andvirtuous practices. A major precursor to the enhancedprofessional recognition of accountants is the belief thataccountants have chosen to act in a manner beneficial tothe community in which and for which they function.For accountants to maintain or enhance their professionalidentity, the broader community must perceive theaccounting function has made choices that are alignedwith the social obligations expected of it. Allegations thataccountants are systemically violating this public trust, plusincreasing government regulation of accounting issues,may ultimately result in the demise of the accountingprofession as we know it today. To maintain this trust, thepublic accounting professional boards have issued codesof professional conduct as a form of guidance to theirmembership; and also tries to ensure that those individualswishing to become professional accountants undertakestudy that acquaints them with their respective codes.Whilst such policies deal adequately with the perceptionof ethical behavior, it is still an open question whether thepolicies deal with the reality of ethical behavior.Public companies and their auditors are under assault.Investor confidence has been eroded following a hostof accounting and financial reporting improprieties.The capital markets depend on reliable and accuratefinancial information to foster growth and investment.Many familiar companies are still under investigation dueto alleged accounting and financial reporting failures.Academics are actively encouraging students to reaffirmtheir commitment to ethical and moral conduct; as it isimperative they begin working to restore confidence inthe financial reporting system. However, it must also beunderscored that practices that one society condemns ascorrupt are considered harmless or even appropriate inanother cultural context. A problem exists with a cleardefinition of corruption.Focus group discussions with academics and theaccounting professionals around the Middle East suggestthat for accountants to satisfy professional obligations ofintegrity and objectivity of judgment, it would appear thatsome form of self-directed ethical reasoning based onvalues is necessary. If accountants, in their discharge oftheir duties, do not have self-directed principled reasoningcapabilities, the consequences are that they will be lessresistant to client pressures or socialization strategies.Moreover, these professional in the Middle East arguethat since the accounting function encompasses amultitude of activities, practices, and concepts withaccounting professionals acting in numerous capacitiesin a corporation, it would still be the center that wouldsatisfy the CEOs quest to manipulate financial resultsand position. In theory accountants in the Middle Eastare now up to the job of providing a reasonably accuraterendering of a business’s financial performance. Accuracy,however, is not always the aim of those who manage acorporation. Many who stand to gain from cooperatingwith management, be they board members or outsideaccountants, analysts or investment bankers, may have an

interest in continuing to manipulate the accounting systemto produce a misleading, distorted, or downright fictionalportrayal of a business’s health and prospects.The extent to which management would use the profitimpact of a supply chain function in furthering thedysfunctional objective of CEO’s: to manipulate earningsis considered in this study. The message is clear: CEOsstill want value and in the supply chain function’s questto add value they may undermine the revenue aspects ofsome transactions.Following upon series of contacts between accountants,auditors and corporations, in-depth focus group discussionswere held on the causes of earnings manipulation, and itsnegative effects on financial, economic, social and culturaldevelopment of corporations in the Middle East. Moreover,what new games would accountants start to play tosupport earnings manipulation and earnings management?Reflecting upon the possibilities for strengthening theintolerance against corruption, it is essential to assessthe effectiveness of international efforts to support therule of law. Despite a proliferation of work in rule oflaw and anti-corruption in recent years, evaluations ofthe effectiveness of these activities are few. Recognizingthis gap in knowledge, the accounting profession in theMiddle East has begun taking stock of the effectivenessof rule of law promotion generally, and anti-corruptionspecifically. Business entrepreneurs in the Middle Eastare arguing that corruption can increase economicefficiency particularly when one sees very restrictiveregulations, bureaucratic laws and confiscatory measures.Corruption can reduce costs and thus increase efficiency.Accounting and peer pressureThe collapse of major U.S. corporations illustratesthe dangers of corporate ‘unaccountability’, and theinterrelationships that exist between big business,government and the professions whose job it is to holdthem to account. However, it has also raised a number ofspecific issues that hold lessons for the implementationand enforcement of anti-bribery legislation. At a time when30 countries are re-assessing their national measuresfor deterring bribery and corruption, so as to ensurecompliance with the Organization for Economic Co-operationand Development Anti-bribery Convention, then it isimportant to take the opportunity to review and learnfrom any lessons that were experienced in the U.S.The Organization for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD) is a unique forum where thegovernments of 30 market democracies work together toaddress the economic, social and governance challengesof globalization as well as to exploit its opportunities. TheOrganization provides a setting where governments cancompare policy experiences, seek answers to commonproblems, and identify good practice and co-ordinatedomestic and international policies. It is a forum where peerpressure can act as a powerful incentive to improve policyand which produces internationally-agreed instruments,decisions and recommendations in areas where multilateralagreement is necessary for individual countries to makeprogress in a globalised economy. Non-members areinvited to subscribe to these agreements and treaties.Evidence from around the world suggests thatMultinational Companies (MNCs), operating in a rangeof sectors, engage in bribery and corruption not onlyas a result of solicitation - but also as a choice strategy.The World Bank presents research, carried out in thetransitional states, and concludes that ‘bribery pays’ whenused either to secure large-scale procurement contracts,or to buy influence. The existence of powerful economicincentives, makes bribery all the more difficult to addressand underlines the need for rigorous enforcement of anti-briberylegislation. Concerns with corruption, over and above themoral and ethical discourse, include:• Impact on development and the poor: bribery andcorruption inhibit development as it is the poor whopay for the costs of bribes, either through higherprices, or lower quality services. Bribery also creates ademocratic deficit as key decisions affecting citizensare made away from the public arena for reasonsoutside the public interest;• Impact on markets: bribery and corruption distortscompetition• Integrity of public services: today’s privatisation andliberalisation policies are increasing the opportunitiesand incentives for bribery and corruption undermining47

48public confidence in the integrity of public services;• Impact on workers and whistleblowers: whistle-blowersprovide a mechanism for increasing the chance ofdetecting bribery and thus potentially provide a powerful toolfor deterring corruption. Whistleblowers need to beproperly protected both by national legislation and ata company level, through the establishment of appropriatedisclosure channels.Since 1977, the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA)made it a criminal offence for USA companies – as wellas those foreign companies whose securities are listed inthe United States – to pay bribes to foreign governmentofficials. Moreover, the FCPA was adopted followingan SEC investigation in which over 400 USA companiesadmitted making questionable or illegal payments inexcess of £300 million to foreign government officials,politicians and political parties in an attempt to restorepublic confidence in the integrity of U.S. businessconduct. Other OECD countries, however, did not haveequivalent legislation. This raised concerns that the FCPAhad created an un-level playing field, as companies fallingoutside the scope of the FCPA could secure commercialadvantage, through the payment of bribes, in a way thatthose subject to the FCPA could not. This need to ‘levelthe playing field’ provided the motivation for the OECDConvention on Combating Bribery of Foreign PublicOfficials in International Business Transactions, whichcame into force in 1999 - over 20 years after the FCPA.Signatories, include all 30 OECD members, as well as 5non-members. The Convention requires signatories toenact national legislation that criminalizes the act of bribinga foreign public official. The FCPA represents 20 yearsexperience of implementing and enforcing anti-briberylegislation. It also provided the basic legislative frameworkfor the OECD Convention. As such, it potentially offersvaluable lessons for the implementation of the OECDConvention. The FCPA consists of two basic parts:• Anti-bribery provisions: which prohibit Americancompanies, citizens and residents from making illicitpayments to foreign officials to procure a commercialbenefit;• Accounting provisions: which requires public companiesto make and keep books and records that accuratelyreflect the transactions of the corporation and put inplace strict accounting controls aimed at uncoveringand deterring corruption. These were designed tooperate in tandem with the anti-bribery provisions.Violation of either the FCPA’s anti-bribery or accountingprovisions carries potential criminal and civil penalties.The FCPA is jointly enforced by the US Departmentof Justice and the Securities and Exchange Commission(SEC). Overall, however, there is means to assess theeffectiveness of the FCPA in deterring internationalbribery. Whilst to some extent the prosecution of casescan be assumed to send the signal to companies that itis ‘no longer business as usual’, it is impossible to knowthe frequency or level of bribes that have been paid despite theFCPA. Indeed, disappointingly perhaps, research on thebehavior of OECD MNCs in the transitional states foundthat USA companies were no less likely to engage in thepayment of procurement kickbacks than MNCs of otherOECD countries.CorruptionIf the cost of a corrupt act is lower than the cost of aproper act under an illegitimate and bureaucratic regimethen corruption is going to be pervasive. However,corruption is the cause of annoyance and misfortunedespite it having an efficiency enhancing value in restrictiveeconomies. If everything that virtuous is the hallmark ofprogress, corruption is its bane. Practices that one societycondemns as corrupt are considered harmless or evenappropriate in another cultural context. However, corruptacts are, in every definition, improper or illegitimate. Theproblem for social science consists of giving the term"improper" specific content and finally by what standardwould we know if a particular interaction is corrupt?Forms of corruption would include: bribery, extortion,fraud and collusion. Corruption could be individual,systemic and cultural. Individual corruption would entailthe benefits of corruption being enjoyed by a small groupof individuals. Systemic corruption on the other hand isinstitutionalized corruption. When individual corruptionand systemic corruption become pervasive – corruptionbecomes a culture. Systemic corruption ought to bea serious item that merits priority status in the globalagenda. Generally, corruption is a "zero-sum game"where through bribery, extortion, collusion or fraudsomeone wins at the expense of others and thus it mustbe curbed for the effective functioning of a global village.To be controlled effectively, systemic corruption willrequire a system’s approach strategy that simultaneouslyencompasses givers and takers. Only with the momentumthat could be achieved by a global commitment, (similarto the commitment for sustainable development), will itbe possible to make a difference on the subject.

Though corruption poses fundamental challenges toboth democratic governance and market economies,accounting researchers have not addressed corruption in acomparative context. In the light of the above discussion,an audit of an MNCs in the Middle East revealed thefollowing journal entries. The MNC is a major supplier ofstructural steel building material to XYZ Limited LiabilityCompany located in the Middle East. The accountant thatmade the entry recalled being told that a loan was grantedto XYZ LLC and no other documentation was presented.Why was this loan given? The response could be a truth.Exhibit One (Loan to a customer XYZ LLC recorded)Loan to XYZ LLC (General Ledger Account)Dr $500,000Cash $500,000Loan granted to XYZ LLC at 21% interestrate per annum.Upon perusing the journal entry, it became apparent thattrust is a valuable asset and the MNC purchased this.Exhibits Two and Three show an innocent sales transaction,however, to a company that was given a loan a few monthsearlier. This poses no problem as major car manufacturerssupport their dealers by providing them with loans.Exhibit Two (Sales to a Customer XYZ LLC recorded)Sales early in quarter one of the first year amounted to$2,837,000 and recorded as a credit sale in the debtors’journal as follows:XYZ LLC (Debtors’ Ledger Account)Dr $2,837,000Sales $2,837,000Structural and processed steel sold on creditExhibit Three (Record of Sales to XYZ LLC)The following sales figures were reflected anddocumentations were provided. Moreover, when creditsales takes place – reasonable assurance of collection mustbe assured – and goods must have changed ownership.Year 1 Quarter 1 $2,837,000 (As reflected above)Quarter 2 $1,938,000Quarter 3 $1,843,000Quarter 4 $1,945,000Year 2 Quarter 1 $1,655,000Quarter 2 $1,452,000Quarter 3 $1,345,000Quarter 4 $1,223,000Payments of various amounts were received from XYZLLLC every quarter over a period of two years. This wasa result of structural steel building materials that weredispatched to XYZ LLC. At the end of quarter one of thefirst year, a payment was received to the value of $2,837,000.The entries were made as follows (Exhibit Four):Exhibit Four (Record of Cash Received from XYZ LLC)Journal Entry as recorded in the Cash Payments Journal:Cash Dr $2,837,000XYZ LLC (Debtors’ Ledger) $2,758,856Loan to XYZ LLC (General Ledger) $51,894Interest received $26,250Cash received from XYZ LLC in respect of goodsInvoiced and part redemption of loan – first quarter.An examination of Exhibit Four shows that the accountantamortized the loan over a period of eight quarters. Thiswas done at times when the cash payment was receivedfrom XYZ LLC. The interest rate of 21% per year (5.25per quarter was applied systematically and methodicallyrecorded as interest received consistent with acceptedpractices. No write off of accounts receivable were made,however, a provision for doubtful debts was maintained at7.5% of accounts receivables.In the middle of Quarter Four of the second year a further$500,000 loan was made to XYZ LLC. Moreover, a luxurysport utility vehicle purchased in year one by the MNCand included in its asset register was given to XYZ LLC.Several non material payments were made by the MNC toXYZ LLC as site visit expenditure.The changing role of accountantsAccountants must come to realize that as long as salesrevenue is going to impact upon earnings, managementwill do everything to tell small truths in the wake of hugelies. In this regard it is vitally important for accountantsand auditors to ensure that the firms are run efficiently, itspublic records kept accurately, and its taxes paid properlyand on time.49

50They perform these vital functions by offering anincreasingly wide array of business and accounting services,including public, management, and government accounting,as well as internal auditing, to their clients and at the sametime protecting the interest of stakeholders. Beyondcarrying out the fundamental tasks of the occupation,preparing, analyzing, and verifying financial documents inorder to provide information to clients, many accountantsnow are required to possess a wide range of knowledgeand skills to deal with a growing public that have becomeskeptical of accountants. Accountants and auditors arebroadening the services they offer to include budgetanalysis, financial and investment planning, informationtechnology consulting, and limited legal services not onlyto major corporations but also to individual taxpayers andinvestors. Some public accountants specialize in forensicaccounting—investigating and interpreting white-collarcrimes such as securities fraud and embezzlement,bankruptcies and contract disputes, and other complexand possibly criminal financial transactions, includingmoney laundering by organized criminals. Forensicaccountants combine their knowledge of accounting andfinance with law and investigative techniques in order todetermine whether an activity is illegal. Many forensicaccountants work closely with law enforcement personneland lawyers during investigations and often appear asexpert witnesses during trials of CEO’s that have told halftruths. In response to recent accounting scandals, newFederal legislation restricts the non-auditing services thatpublic accountants can provide to clients. If an accountingfirm audits a client’s financial statements, that same firmcannot provide advice on human resources, technology,investment banking, or legal matters, although accountantsmay still advise on tax issues, such as establishing a taxshelter. Accountants may still advise other clients inthese areas or may provide advice within their own firm.Despite assiduous efforts in anti-corruption campaigns,many accountants are plagued with rampant corruptionproblems; and in a number of countries, the progresstowards corruption reduction has not yet stagnated overthe last decade. The impact that accounting practiceshave on the level of bribery has not yet been measuredbut it can be said that better accounting practices canhelp reduce both the incidence of bribery activities andthe amount of bribe payments, but conforming to highquality accounting standard alone will not necessarilyenhance the quality of accounting practices and thus willnot automatically bring down the level of bribery.ReferencesBushman, R., and A. Smith, 2001. ‘Financial AccountingInformation and Corporate Governance’.Journal of Accounting and Economics 32: 237–333.Choi, J.S. 2002. Financial Crisis and Accounting Reform:A Cultural Perspective.Journal of Accounting and Finance1: 77-93.Clarke, G., and L. C. Xu. 2004. ‘Privatization, Competitionand Corruption: How Characteristics of Bribe Takers andPayers Affect Bribe Payments to Utilities’.Journal of Public Economics 88 (9-10): 2067-2097.Herrera, A. M., and P. Rodriguez. 2003. Bribery and theNature of Corruption.Working Paper, Department of Economics, MichiganState University.Kimbro, M. B. 2002. ‘A Cross-country Empirical Investigationof Corruption and its Relationship to Economic, Culturaland Institutional Variables: An Examination of theRole of Accounting and Financial Statements Quality’.Journal of Accounting Auditing and Finance17 (4): 325-349.Lin, Z., and F. Chen. 2000, ‘Asian Financial Crisis andAccounting Reforms in China’.Managerial Finance 26 (5): 63-79.Rose-Ackerman, S. 2002. ‘“Grand” Corruption and theEthics of Global Business’.Journal of Banking and Finance 26: 1889-1918.Rosser, A. 2003. ‘Globalisation, International Norms, andthe Politics of Accounting Reform in Indonesia.In What Is To Be Done? Global Economic Disorder and Policiesfor a New International Financial Architecture. eds. UnderhillG., and X.Zhang. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Svensson, J. 2003. ‘Who must Pay Bribes and how Much?:Evidence from a Cross- Section of Firms’.Quarterly Journal of Economics 118 (1): 207-230.Vogl, F. 1998. ‘The Supply Side of Global Bribery’. Finance& Development 35 (2): 30-33.Wu, X. 2005a. Corporate Governance and Corruption:A Cross-Country Analysis, Governance: An International Journalof Policy, Administration and Institutions 18 (2): 151-170.

A Cross-Cultural Modelof Innovation:An Exploratory StudyMourad Dakhli and Wade DanisAbstractInnovation is recognized as a key factor in the success of organizations,and as an important driver of overall economic development. I thispaper, we review advances in innovation literature in multinationalenterprises (MNEs). We extend research in this area by proposingthat innovation is also a function of the underlying processes thattake place within each organizational unit that constitute themultinational network. Using a grounded theory approach, we offera process model of innovation across different cultural settings. Inthis model, trust and organizational commitment are proposed ascritical factors that determine the nature and degree of cooperativeand conflictual exchange processes that underlie innovation withinMNE units. By looking at the interpersonal processes that facilitateinnovation across cultures, our theory contributes to an area ofinnovation research that is still lacking; namely a consideration ofthe multilevel nature of innovation processes, and the delimitation ofthe role of culture in affecting these processes in MNEs.The head of Strategic Planning for a major oil companyonce said "The great leap of faith in HR these days seems to bethat excellent individuals make excellent organizations. The realityis that our employees aren't any smarter or hard working than ourcompetitors'. It's only the way we combine people and align them thatgives us competitive advantage" (Snell, 1999).In their study of interorganizational networks aninnovation within multinationals, Tsai and Ghoshal (1998)found that product innovation at the organizationalnetwork level was a function of the type of relationshipsthat exist between various units of the organization. Inparticular, these authors showed that trust and sharedvision was important drivers of the nature of exchangebetween these units, which in turn fostered innovation.Their research focused on the network ties that linkvarious subsidiaries of the multinational network, andinvestigated the role such networks play in driving productinnovation at the organizational level.We build on this work and complement it by looking atthe processes within these organizational units that driveinnovation. We argue that given that many multinationalsadopt a multidomestic or a transnational organizationalstrategy, organizational units have a key role in initiatingand fostering innovation within their local boundaries(Birkinshaw, 1997). A number of researchers have shownthat subsidiaries play a vital role in overall networkeffectiveness and success. Often, entire innovationfunctions, such as RandD are localized within certainunits. In their study of the role of subsidiaries in creatingfirm-level advantage, Birkinshaw, Hood, and Jonsson(1998) showed that internal subsidiary resources drive thecontributory role of the subsidiary, that subsidiary cultureand autonomy were important factor in its role as creator offirm-level advantage; hence, emphasizing the independentrole of various divisions within multinationals in generatingvalue. Furthermore, we acknowledge the role of trust andshared vision within the organizational unit as importantantecedents for innovation. Consequently, we look athow trust and commitment to the organization drive theinnovation process. Here we use O’Reilly and Chatman’s(1986) view of commitment as the embodiment of a sharedvision within the organization. We also maintain that atthe unit level exchange can be in two forms: cooperationand conflict. These two modes of exchange have beenadvanced as key processes within organizations underlyingmany organizational-level outcomes (Barnard, 1938; Walland Callister, 1995). In our paper, we present cooperationand conflict as underlying processes that drive innovation.Throughout this paper, we use the term organizational unitsas a more inclusive way to describe the various units thatconstitute the organizational network of the multinationalcorporation. Such units could represent subsidiaries,franchises, sales offices, RandD units, or service teamslocated within a given cultural and institutional setting.This manuscript is organized as follows: First we offer abrief review of innovation and its value to organizations.Second, we discuss cooperation and conflict as forms ofexchange in organizations. Third, we outline how trustand commitment affect cooperation and conflict. Wethen discuss the role of the cultural context in shapingthe process of innovation. We conclude by discussing thetheoretical and practical implications of our model.Innovation in organizationFor many years, organization scholars and practitionersalike have been researching ways to better understandinnovation and identify its components and antecedents(Damanpour, 1991, Janssen, Van de Vliert, West, 2004;Kodama, 2005; Pearce and Ensley, 2004). Due to its practicaland research importance, this subject area has receiveda great deal of attention as witnessed by the numerouspopular books and articles written about it (Anderson,51

52Carsten, De Dreu, and Nijstad, 2004; Damanpout,1991; Wolfe, 1994). Despite extensive work in the areahowever, considerable debate still surround the centralconcept of innovation, its dimensions, and its drivers.A growing amount of research has focused on organizationalattributes that differentiate between innovative and lessinnovative firms. A number of attributes have beenexamined including structure, managerial characteristics,available resources, administrative intensity, and internal/external communication (see Damanpour (1991) fora review), although no set of explanatory variables hasemerged (Wolfe, 1994). This may be because researchin this tradition typically centers on whether or notorganizations innovate (e.g., adoption decisions), ratherthan on how they innovate. We focus on the natureand degree of cooperative and/or conflictual exchangeprocesses in organizations and theorize about how theseimpact innovation processes and outcomes.Researchers have distinguished among several types ofinnovation based on certain characteristics or attributes.Examples include radical vs. incremental (Dewar andDutton, 1986), sustaining vs. disruptive (Christensen,1997), competence enhancing vs. competence destroying(Tushman and Anderson, 1986), product vs. process(Utterback and Abernathy, 1975), and technical vs.administrative (Damanpour and Evan, 1984). Muchof the research on innovation type is concerned withthe industry-level phenomena, such as environmentalchange (Tushman and Anderson, 1986) and innovationdiffusion (Rogers, 2003; Teece, 1980), rather than its firmunit-level determinants, which are our concern, althoughsome has also focused on innovation-performance linksand innovation adoption at the firm level (Damanpour etal., 1989). Here, we adopt the view taken by a number ofresearchers and argue that innovation should encompassthe two elements of initiation and implementation(Damanpour, 1991). Initiation refers to the original stageof idea generation. However, such ideas are of little valueif they are not adopted by organizations. Consequentlyin discussing innovation, one must keep in mind thatinnovation has multiple dimensions, and that processeswithin organizations may affect these dimensionsdifferently (Zmud, 1982).Innovation requires perspectives gained from observationand activity in many business domains. Ideas forinnovation may arise from environmental sources, suchas new technologies, competitive pressures, or customerrequests. Innovation also may be influenced by internalsources, through the work of a firm’s research anddevelopment personnel or advances in throughput andefficiency methodologies. Innovation may further beinfluenced by factors that arise from the intersection ofinternal and external forces. For example, firms mayaccess information from external sources then utilize itto alter their internal characteristics and activities. Froman organizational perspective, we should expect that firmswith different internal processes and characteristics relatedto cooperation, trust, conflict, and commitment, willaddress innovation in different ways. Our propositionsand theoretical model develop these ideas further.A closer examination of the innovation literature has shownthat despite great advances in this stream of research, twoarea warrant further investigation. First, most researchhas focused on a single level of analysis where innovationhas mainly been considered at the individual, team ororganizational level. As such there is a greater need to lookat multilevel models of innovation (Anderson, De Dreu,and Nijsrad, 2004). Furthermore, little research exists todate that examines how innovation processes are affectedby the cultural context (Miron, Erez, and Naveh, 2004).A number of cross-cultural researchers have argued thatthe cultural setting, especially as manifested by the culturalvalue of individualism-collectivism, has significant effectson interpersonal interactions in organizations (Hofstede,1980; Triandis, 1995). For example, individuals’ willingnessto form collectives and their willingness to engage incooperative efforts has been shown to be affected bytheir collectivist tendencies (Chen, Meindel, and Hunt,1998; Triandis, 1989). Culture determines the contextin which interpersonal interactions take place and thusaffects the nature and level of cooperation and conflictin organizations. We address these two issues and buildon previous research on trust and commitment in orderto develop a cross-culture, multilevel model of innovationin organizational units within the multinational network.We therefore recognize the role of the cultural context inaffecting interpersonal processes in organizations includinginnovation (Miron, Erez, and Naveh, 2004; Erez and Earley,1993). The model we proposed is depicted in Figure 1.Cooperation in Organizational UnitsCooperation has long been considered an essentialcomponent of successful teamwork and efficientorganizational functioning (Ghoshal and Bartlett, 1994;Lester, Meglino and Korsgaard, 2002; Smith, Carroll,and Ashford, 1995). As early as the 1930’s, organizations

were conceived as associations of cooperative efforts, andcooperation has been defined as the “willingness of personsto contribute efforts to cooperative systems” (Barnard, 1938:83).Numerous researchers have studied various facets ofcooperation in organizations including extra-role behavior,stewardship, and information exchange, and have furtherunderscored the vital role that cooperation plays inachieving organizational goals (Smith, Organ, and Near,1983; Smith, Carroll, and Ashford, 1995). In recognitionof this important fact, many organizations have adoptedcertain structures and processes such as teams in order tofoster interpersonal cooperation (Jones and George, 1998).Additionally, many argue that cooperation may fostercreativity by promoting open and voluntary exchange ofinformation and knowledge in organizations. Bartlett andGhoshal (1993), for example, advance cooperation as animportant determinant of collective learning in MNEs,which in turn is argued as an essential aspect of qualitymanagement. Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998) proposethat extensive exchange in organizations facilitates thecreation of intellectual capital and affects the speed andefficiency of knowledge creation and sharing. Based ona review of the literature, Smith, Carroll, and Ashford(1995) found substantial support for the relationshipbetween cooperation and the organizations ability to meetnew technological and competitive challenges in theirenvironment. Consequently, it is argued that by fosteringextensive exchange of ideas and knowledge, cooperationpromotes the initiation of new ideas and is thus associatedwith the initiation of innovation..Furthermore, social networks and social capital researchershave argued that networks of cooperative relationshipsthat develop within groups and organizations providefoundations for stable and prosperous collectives(Putnam, 1993; Coleman, 1990; Lester et al., 2002).Interpersonal cooperative relationships reinforce normsof reciprocity, and further the development of enduringand stable structures (Blau, 1964). In support of thisargument, Leena and Van Buren (1999) contend thatstability of organizations lies in the extensive networkof social ties that foster spontaneous cooperativeefforts. These networks then provide the channels forenduring exchange of all types, and become the meansfor providing support to achieve common goals. Sinceinnovation adoption requires strong relational ties thatmake it possible to accept and adopt new ideas initiated bymembers within this network, we argue that cooperationis also associated with the adoption phase of innovation.The above discussion can be formally stated as follows:Proposition 1: Cooperation is positively associated with innovationin organizational units.Conflict in Organizational UnitsConflict has been defined as a process in which one partyperceives that its interests are being opposed or negativelyaffected by another party (Shelton and Darling, 2004; Walland Callister, 1995). Conflict is an important phenomenonin organizations with significant effects on a range ofoutcomes including stability, effectiveness and well-being.Pondy (1967), for example, argues that conflict disturbsthe equilibrium of organizations, and that the reactionof organizations to disequilibrium is the mechanism bywhich conflict affects their stability and their adaptabilityto change. There is a general consensus in the literaturethat conflict is a multidimensional construct that can betask or relationship based (Amason, 1996; Jehn, 1995).Task conflict refers to disagreements about the contentof the tasks being performed, including differences inviewpoints ideas and opinions, whereas relationshipconflict refers to interpersonal incompatibilities, whichtypically includes tension, animosity and annoyanceamong the parties involved (Jehn, 1995). Whether conflictis functional or dysfunctional to the organization dependson the type of conflict in question. For example, Jehn(1995) has found that the moderate levels of task conflicthave positive consequences for the organization, butrelationship conflict was associated with negative effectivereaction of employees. Amason (1996), in supportof Jehn’s argument, finds that task conflict is positivelyrelated to decision quality in top management teams,while relationship conflict is negatively associated withthe quality of the decisions. The effects of relationshipconflict on behavior have been widely documented andresearched. Power struggles, blocking others’ goals andavoidance are but a few of the negative effects identifiedin the literature. Of particular interest in this paper is thefinding that relationship conflict reduces spontaneousinteractions and minimizes interpersonal communication(Wall and Callister, 1995). In organizations, relationalconflict is associated with a rise in anger, hostility andanimosity. This, in turn, creates unstable environmentswhere hidden agendas get in the way of cooperativeefforts (Wall and Callister, 1995; Pondy, 1967). In suchenvironments, people are less likely to engage in anyendeavor that is above and beyond what is contractuallymandated, and as such as less likely to propose newideas and ways of running things. Simultaneously, inenvironments where relational conflict is high, it is less53

54likely that when a new idea initiated that it will be adopted.In fact, such process may be cause for more conflictwhere relational issues may be masked by an eagernessto challenge and question every aspect of the new idea(Thatcher, Jehn, and Zanutto, 2003). Consequently, thefollowing two propositions:Proposition 2:Relationship conflict is negatively associated with cooperation.Proposition 3:Relationship conflict is negatively associated with innovation.In contrast, task conflict can have positive effects on bothteams and organizations (Jehn, 1995, 1997; Amason, 1996).Task conflict encourages group members to challengeexisting assumptions, and acts as a guarantor againstgroupthink (Janis, 1972). As a result, more diverse ideas andproposals are put on the table, and a more comprehensiveevaluation of these ideas takes place in the presence of taskconflict.In recognition of this fact, many organizationsattempt to improve decision-making processes andinterpersonal interactions by employing techniques such asdevil’s advocacy and dialectical inquiry in order to inducecertain levels of task conflict (Schweiger, Sandberg, andRagan, 1986). Where initial ideas are challenged, new andimproved proposals may generated and a more thoroughassessment takes place. In such context, it is likely thatmore ideas will be initiated. Therefore,Proposition 4: Task conflict is positively associated with innovation.Having addressed the links between cooperation,conflict and innovation, we proceed with addressingthe antecedents of conflict and cooperation processesand outline the important role of the cultural contextin affecting these relationships. Specifically, we focus ontrust and commitment as antecedents of cooperationand conflict and use individualism-collectivism as theembodiment of the cultural context.Trust in organizational unitsTrust has long been recognized in the organizationliterature as an important determinant of cooperationamong individuals, groups, and organizations. This linkbetween trust and various forms of cooperative behaviorshas been advanced and tested by a number of researchers.For example, Deutsch (1962) has shown that trust isfundamental to cooperative relationships, while Jonesand George (1998) argue that in the presence of trust,shared values underlying trust provide individuals with theassurance that knowledge and information will be usedfor the greater good. In addition, McAllister (1995) hasfound that trust affects the level of citizenship behaviorin organizations as well as the quality of employee/supervisor relationships.Trust is recognized in the organization literature as amultidimensional phenomenon and various definitionsand conceptualizations of the construct exist. Forexample, Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt, and Camerer (1998)define trust in psychological terms as a psychological statecomprising the intention to accept vulnerability basedupon positive expectations of the intentions or behaviorof another. Others define trust it in terms of positiveexpectations of the role behavior of others (Lewis andWeigert, 1985; Fukayama, 1995). The various dimensionsof trust identified result out of the various ways in whichit is conceptualized. For example, Lewis and Weigert(1985) suggest that trust includes cognitive and emotionaldimensions and that both are functionally necessaryfor the continuous of harmonious social relations.Cognition-based trust originates out of knowledge aboutthe role performance and trustworthiness of others. Inthis case, confident positive expectations arise from thereputation of exchange partner (experience, competence,reliability, etc.). Relational-based trust, on the other hand,is the result of the trustor’s attachment to, and feeling ofcloseness toward, the trustee. Here, emotions enter intothe relationship and foster strong social bonds betweenthe parties. Consequently, such bonds become the basisfor long-term cooperative relationships.Jones and George (1998), who distinguish conditionaland unconditional trust, suggest that the nature ofcooperation between individuals depend on the type oftrust that exists between them. Conditional trust is basedon calculative expectations whereas unconditional trustis base on shared values and a high level of affectivity.Jones and George further argue that cooperation drivenby conditional trust will be sustained only as long asexpectations are realized while unconditional trust willguide people to form strong bonds that foster long-terminterpersonal cooperation and teamwork.In summary, there is a consensus in the literature that trustis a multifaceted construct, and that different dimensionsrelate differently to cooperation among individuals. Trustcan develop on the basis of cognition or affect (McAllister,1995). Cognition-based trust originates out of knowledgeabout the role performance and trustworthiness of

others. In this case, confident positive expectationsarise from others’ reputation (experience, competence,reliability, etc.). Affect-based trust, on the other hand, isthe result of the trustor’s attachment to, and feeling ofcloseness toward, the trustee. Here, emotions enter intothe relationship and foster strong social bonds betweenexchange partners. Consequently, such bonds become thebasis for long-term cooperation.The Cultural Side of TrustAs stated earlier cultural values affect the context in whichinterpersonal processes take place in organizations (Erezand Earley, 1993). In particular, the cultural dimension ofindividualism-collectivism has been shown to affect thedynamics of cooperation (Triandis, 1995; Chen, Meindel,and Hunt, 1998). Below we review pertinent research onthis cultural value and advance ways in which it affects therelationship between trust and cooperation.A general consensus that can be drawn from studieson individualism-collectivism is that, compared toindividualists, collectivists have higher tendenciesto subordinate individual goals for the goals of thecollective, are more likely to develop a stronger senseof group identity, and are more likely to opt for workingin groups (Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1995; Kagitcibasi,1994, 1997). Cross-cultural researchers distinguishbetween individualism-collectivism at the societal leveland its corresponding construct at the individual level.Triandis (1989), for example, proposed ideocentrismand allocentrism as the individual level counterparts ofthe country-level construct as a way to emphasize thedistinction between the two. Of all cultural dimensionsidentified in cross-cultural research, individualismcollectivismseems to be the most extensively studied, andhas been shown to be a valid predictor of an array ofphenomena at multiple levels of analysis (Earley, 1994;Wagner, 1995, Hofstede, 1980, 1991).One of the most extensive works on individualismcollectivismwas undertaken by Triandis (1995) who,based on a comprehensive literature review, proposedfour dimensions of individualism-collectivism. The firstdimension related to the conception of the self. Here, itwas argued that individualists define self as autonomousfrom groups, while collectivists see themselves as partof a collective. The second dimension related to goalrelationships, and spoke to the tendency of collectiviststo subordinate individual goals for those of the group,and the tendency of individualists to place higher priorityon individual goals. The third dimension concernedthe relative importance of attitudes and norms. Here,Triandis (1995) argued that social norms, duties, andobligations drive the behavior of collectivists, whileindividual attitudes and preferences drive the behaviors ofindividualists. The fourth and final dimension proposedrelated to the emphasis placed on relationships. Theargument here was that collectivists place a high emphasison relationships and harmony, while individualists placemore emphasis on tasks and tend to view relationships asa means to achieve specific goals.The higher emphasis on relationships in collectivistenvironments solidifies norms of reciprocity and allowsfor the development of positive affect and mutualliking (Chen, Meindel, and Hunt, 1998). As such, affectbecomes a more important predictor of cooperationthan rational expectations regarding the role performanceof others. On the other hand, the stress on task andindividual goals among individualists leads to higheremphasis on knowledge and competence of exchangepartners as to their ability to reciprocate the exchange orassist in achieving the task at hand. That is, in this case,cooperation will be achieved when positive expectationsarise out of the reputation and competence of exchangepartners in facilitating the attainment of individual goals.This point is further supported by Hofstede’s extensivecross-cultural research, which affirms that interpersonalrelationships prevail over task in collectivist societies, whiletasks generally prevail over relationships in individualistsocieties. Furthermore, the cost-benefit approach thatdrives behavior in individualistic settings necessitatesgreater reliance on objective information regarding thepotential positives and negative consequences of anyundertaking (Kagitcibasi, 1997). Consequently,Proposition 5: The relationship between trust and cooperation ismoderated by individualism-collectivism such that affective trustwill be more strongly associated with cooperation in collectivistsetting, whereas cognitive trust will be more strongly associated withcooperation in individualist settings.Distrust or the lack of others has been advanced as afactor that contributes to conflict (Wall and Callister, 1995).However, we argue that this relationship is culturally bound.Specifically, individualists are more task than relationshiporiented and place higher emphasis on individualachievements and qualifications than the nature of therelationships with others. While interacting with others,individualists are more likely to experience task conflict55

organizations in individualist societies tend to be primarilyconceived as a calculative relationship between buyers andsellers on the “labor market”. Therefore, we propose thefollowing:Proposition 7: Individualism-collectivism will moderate therelationship between commitment and cooperation such thatcontinuance commitment will be more strongly related to cooperationin individualist settings, whereas value commitment will be morestrongly related to cooperation in collectivist settings.The relationship between commitment and conflict inorganization has rarely been addressed. However, in anearly experiment conducted by Sherif (1958) it was foundthat superordinate goals are highly effective in reducingtension and conflict. Superordinate goals that are highlyappealing and compelling goals guide members to minimizedisagreements and work cooperatively toward a commonpurpose. As discussed earlier, value commitment entails theidentification with and internalization of the organization’svalues and goals. Therefore, where high value commitmentis present, it is expected that members will minimizeinterpersonal tensions and animosity and emphasizetheir common commitment to organizational objectives.In addition, commitment based on value congruenceis positively related to homogeneity of organizationalmembers (Schneider, Goldstein, and Smith, 1995). This,in turn, will reduce task conflict as members start topossess similar viewpoints and adopt similar approaches toproblem solving and become less likely to question policiesand ideas (Mowdy et al., 1982; Janis, 1972). Furthermore,according to similarity-attraction paradigm, increasedhomogeneity and similarity leads increased attraction amongmembers, and thus reduced relation-based animosity andmisunderstandings (Byrne, 1971). Consequently,Proposition 8: Value commitment is negatively associated with bothtask and relational conflict.One of the aspects of individualism-collectivismidentified by Triandis (1995) is the fact that collectivistsplace a high emphasis on relationships and harmony,while individualists place more emphasis on tasks andtend to view relationships as a means to achieve specificgoals. As such, even in the presence of high goal or valuecongruence, individualists may exhibit a higher willingnessto question ideas and policies if such policies are counterto self-interest. The added emphasis on harmony forcollectivists may reinforce the need to avoid task-relatedconflict. Accordingly,Proposition 9: Individualism-collectivism moderates the relationshipbetween value commitment and task conflict such that this relationshipis stronger in collectivist settings.In summary, this paper proposes a cross-cultural model ofinnovation where innovation is looked at as the initiationand adoption of a new idea. In this model, the effectsof trust and commitment on innovation are mediated bythe interpersonal processes of cooperation and conflict.The cultural dimension of individualism-collectivismshapes the context in which these processes take placeby influencing the nature and level of cooperation andconflict in organizations. The model proposed is basedon literature review. The next step in validating thismodel is through extensive interviews with innovativeorganizational units. The data from these reviews is thenused in refining the heoretically-driven model.The propositions lend themselves to empirical testingsince reliable instruments are available for operationalizingmany of the constructs advanced. For example, McAllister(1995) has developed and validated a trust questionnairethat distinguishes between the affective and cognitivebases of trust, while Mayer and Schoorman (1992) haveoffered instruments that tap the multiple dimensions oforganizational commitment addressed in this paper. Inaddition task and relationship conflict can be measuredby the instruments developed by Jehn (1995).The conceptual model we propose is not about newconstructs or phenomena; rather, it is about underlyingprocesses that determine how and when organizationalunits can be successful across individualist and collectivistsettings. Innovation within organizations remains one ofthe most important phenomenons in organizations withsignificant managerial consequences (Janssen, Van deVliert, West, 2004; Kodama, 2005). A case in point is thehundreds of thousands of manufacturing jobs that arelost in the United States as a result of a decrease in thecountry’s share of world innovation. In an environmentcharacterized by rapid technological change and growingglobal competition, organizations, and especially MNEs,are taping into all and every possible source of competitiveadvantage. The thrust of this paper is that understandingthe underlying processes of innovation in different culturalenvironment is a must if multinational corporations wantto be successful in creating a context where innovation isfostered within the many organizational units.57

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The GreenTransportation: DoesColor Make a Differencein Mobility, Sustainabilityand EnvironmentalManagementPhilbert SureshThe environmental impact of transport and key role that transportshould play in the achievements of targets to reduce global warming,to reduce dependence on non-renewable energy sources and to minimizelocal pollution bad adverse social impacts. Compared to the past, theenvironmental agenda is much wider and includes global emissions(principally carbon dioxide), an extended list of local emissionsincluding small particles which cause breathing difficulties), theconsumption of non-renewable resources (fuel), the use of land, andthe impact on the local ecology and eco systems.The author will also present a case of Fujairah port and environmentalpractices between adjoining waters with port of Khorfakkan and itssocial implications to governments and people in the region. A focusto action learning methodologies was developed as early as 2002when the author was involved teaching Total Quality Management,Logistics and Business Environment at the University of Sharjahand Manipal Academy of Higher Education in Dubai KnowledgeVillage. A productive and effective relationship was also establishedwith Hon. Minister of Transport, David Collenette in Canada whosupported the development of sustainable development curriculum forTrade and Transportation through Higher Colleges of Technology,Dubai between 1996 and 1998.Field of Research: Sustainable Transportation, ReverseLogistics and Supply Chain Management, EnvironmentalHazards, Ethical Leadership and Social Equity1. IntroductionThe transportation system is vital to the lives of all people andto the rapidly transforming economy. We all rely on transportto move the goods we need, get to work, take a holiday andconnect with our families and friends. But by its very nature,the transportation system has a variety of environmentalimpacts on our air, land and water, and on our health.Continued growth in automobile use, as well as in truckingand aviation, has for example resulted in more emissionsof harmful substances and smog, translating into a greaternegative impact on human health and the environment.More and more, people are relying on the transportationsystem to perform its vital role in ways that do not harmhuman health or the environment. With increasingevidence of climate change and the health effects of airpollutants, the importance of reducing these impacts isgrowing. Sustainable development is a concept whichpromotes a balance of the economic and social benefits oftransportation with the need to protect the environment.In its 1987 report, Our Common Future (also calledthe Brundtland Report), the World Commission onEnvironment and Development defined sustainabledevelopment as "development that meets the needs ofthe present without compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs." The progressivethinkers and policy-makers have adopted this definitionthat is getting renewed every year now.Definition of Sustainable TransportationThe Centre for Sustainable Transportation, a Canadianorganization, defines sustainable transportation as atransportation system that:• allows the basic access needs of individuals andsocieties to be met safely and in a manner consistentwith human and ecosystem health, and with equitywithin and between generations;• is affordable, operates efficiently, offers choice oftransport mode, and supports a vibrant economy; and• limits emissions and waste within the planet’s ability toabsorb them, minimizes consumption of non-renewableresources, reuses and recycles its components, andminimizes the use of land and the production of noise.Source: The Centre for Sustainable Transportation, Definition andVision of Sustainable Transportation, September 1997The Transportation Association of Canada (TAC)proposes that a truly sustainable urban transportationsystem would have the following characteristics:In the natural environment:• limit emissions and waste (that pollute air, soil andwater) within the urban area’s ability to absorb/recycle/cleanse;• provide power to vehicles from renewable orinexhaustible energy sources. This implies solar powerin the long run; and61

62• recycle natural resources used in vehicles andinfrastructure (such as steel, plastic, etc.).In society:• provide equity of access for people and their goods, inthis generation and in all future generations;• enhance human health;• help support the highest quality of life compatiblewith available wealth;• facilitate urban development at the human scale;• limit noise intrusion below levels accepted bycommunities; and• be safe for people and their property.In the economy:• be financially affordable in each generation;• be designed and operated to maximize economicefficiency and minimize economic costs; and• help support a strong, vibrant and diverse economy.Source: Transportation Association of Canada, Sustainable UrbanTransportation Initiatives in Canada, to the APEC Forum onUrban Transportation, Seoul, Korea, November 20-22, 1996Moving the Economy (MTE) is an evolving and expandingpartnership dedicated to promoting, attracting investmentto, and creating jobs in the sustainable transportationsector in the Toronto Region and beyond. MTE definessustainable transportation as:• moving people and goods in cleaner, greener, healthier,safer, more equitable ways; and• where appropriate, moving people and goods less.This short description embraces a wide range of options,including:• telecommunications to reduce or replace travel, ormake it more efficient (i.e. tele-working, tele-banking,tele-shopping, electronic signage, route optimizationsystems and more);• cleaner and more efficient systems for moving people,or for moving fewer goods, less;• land use planning and green development to bringpeople and their needs closer together and to makecities more vibrant and walkable;• sustainable personal transportation modes, includingtransit, walking, cycling, rollerblading and scooters;• new approaches to automobile travel, including carpooling, car sharing, and cleaner, lighter vehicles andfuels; and• all the policies, practices, legislation, and financialincentives and disincentives that allow and promotethese options.Source: Moving the Economy, September 2000The Environment Directorate of the Organization forEconomic Co-operation and Development (OECD) hasdefined environmentally sustainable transportation as:“Transportation that does not endanger public health orecosystems and that meets needs for access consistentwith (a) use of renewable resources at below theirrates of regeneration, and (b) use of non-renewableresources below the rates of development of renewablesubstitutes.”Source: OECD EST Project Brochure, Project on EnvironmentallySustainable Transportation, 1997Sustainability...Treating the world as if we intended to stay.Gray, 1996Applying the concept of sustainable development totransportation is what Transport Canada’s sustainabledevelopment strategy is all about. Although there is no single,commonly held definition of sustainable transportation, forthe department the concept means that the transportationsystem and transportation activity in general, must besustainable on three counts — economic, environmentaland social. Practically, this means ensuring that decisions areno longer made with the environment as an afterthought.Figure - Sustainable Development andTransportation

Sustainable development principlesLet us scrutinize the principles adopted by TransportCanada that recognize sustainable development as amongthe highest of departmental priorities, and define howthe department will apply the concept of sustainabledevelopment to the transportation sector. TransportCanada is committed to applying these principles to itspolicies, programs and operations so that decisions willbetter reflect the goal of sustainable transportation.SOCIAL PRINCIPLESSafety and Health: Transportation systems should first bedesigned and operated in a way that protects the safety ofall people. In addition to Transport Canada’s commitmentto prevent accidents, the department will strive to reducethe negative health impacts of transportation.Access and Choice: Transportation systems shouldprovide people with reasonable access to other people,places, goods and services. The department will promotea more diverse transportation system, including access toinnovative alternatives (i.e. information technologies).Quality of Life: Transportation is a key ingredient in thequality of life of Canadians. The department recognizesthat transportation policies have a direct effect on peopleand that it must consider the characteristics of differentcommunities and regions across the country.ECONOMIC PRINCIPLESEfficiency: Transport Canada will use policies, programsand innovative approaches to support the productivityand competitiveness of Canada’s transportation systemand its contribution to the national economy. Thedepartment will explore ways of promoting efficienttravel behavior and sustainable transportation options.Cost Internalization: The department recognizes the meritof "full cost pricing," whereby the costs of transportationreflect, to the extent possible, their full economic, socialand environmental impacts. The department will assessbarriers to sustainable transportation practices to betterunderstand the full impact of its decisions.Affordability: Transportation systems should beaffordable. The department will promote sustainedstrategic investment in transportation throughnew partnerships, innovative financing and a clearidentification of priorities. In seeking cost-effectivesolutions, it will promote options that include demandmanagement and that foster an appropriate mix ofmodal alternatives.ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLESPollution Prevention: Transport Canada will work toensure that transportation needs are met in a way thatavoids or minimizes the creation of pollutants andwaste, and that reduces the overall risk to human healthand the environment.Protection and Conservation: The department willapply sound environmental protection and conservationpractices. It will support transportation systems thatmake efficient use of land and natural resources, preservevital habitats and maintain biodiversity.Environmental Stewardship: The department willcontinually refine its environmental management systemso that its internal operations support sustainabledevelopment. As both custodian and landlord, it willconsider the potential environmental impacts of newinitiatives, and will apply risk management and duediligence practices consistently to its real propertyassets.MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLESLeadership and Integration: Transport Canada recognizessustainable development as among the highest ofdepartmental priorities and accepts its responsibilityto become a leader in sustainable transportation. Thedepartment will set priorities and responsibilities, allocateresources, and apply tools to integrate sustainabledevelopment into its policies, programs and operations.Precautionary Principle: Where there are threats ofserious or irreversible damage to the environment, thedepartment will not use a lack of full scientific certaintyas a reason for postponing cost-effective measures toprevent environmental degradation.Consultation and Public Participation: The departmentwill inform and engage employees, stakeholdersand communities in its decision-making process asappropriate, and encourage them to participate inachieving the goal of sustainable transportation.Accountability: The department will annually measureand report its progress in achieving its sustainabledevelopment objectives and targets. To this end, itwill develop and refine sustainable transportationindicators.63

64Table Kuwait Fact Profile on TransportationInfrastructureLocation:Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iraqand Saudi ArabiaTotal land area:17,820km2Climate:Dry desert; intensely hot summers; short, cool wintersAirports:7Heliports:5Roadways:5749km (total)Population:2,418,393 (includes 1,291,354 non-nationals)Labour force:1.136 million (non-Kuwaitis represent about 80% of thelabour force)Languages:Arabic (official), English widely spokenSource: CIA World FactbookTransportation is a major employer. In 1999, over 800,000Canadians worked full-time in the sector, accounting forabout 7 per cent of total employment. Transportation alsocontributes significantly to Canada’s economic output. In1999, transportation demand accounted for roughly 13per cent of the country’s Gross Domestic Product.Transportation is especially important given Canada’slarge size and dependence on international trade. Forexample, with the signing of the North American FreeTrade Agreement (NAFTA), trade between Canada andthe United States has grown considerably, with the twocountries exchanging nearly $1.5 billion per day in goodsand services relying in large part on our transportationsector.Transportation also contributes to the Canadian economythrough its essential role in the tourism industry. In 1998,tourism spending reached $47.1 billion, 70 per cent ofwhich was spent by Canadians themselves and 30 per centby visitors. Transportation accounted for $18.5 billion,or 39 per cent of all tourism expenditures. Air travelaccounted for 57 per cent of this, followed by road travelat 35 per cent, with the balance going to rail, bus, taxis andother modes.Current trends in transportationOverall, transportation activity continues to increase inCanada. As our economy and population grow, so too doesthe demand for transportation. Canada’s economy grewat a rate of about 2.9 per cent per year between 1995 and2000, and is forecast to grow at a rate of 2.3 per cent peryear between 2000 and 2010. Over the same fifteen-yearperiod, the population of Canada is expected to increasefrom 29.6 to 33.8 million. This increase, along with arise in the number of Canadians travelling, is leading toever-increasing levels of passenger transportation activity,particularly on the road and in the air (Figure 4.1).Due to increases in the size and use of the road vehiclefleet (the number of road vehicles in Canada), the use ofon-road diesel fuel and on-road gasoline has grown by74 per cent and 44 per cent respectively, between 1990and 2000. At the same time, fewer Canadians are usingthe less polluting modes of travel, such as urban transit,trains and buses.Figure Projected Road and Air PassengerTransportation ActivitySource: Marbek Resource Consultants, Issue Scan forTransport Canada’sSustainable Development Strategy 2000, May 4, 2000

Similarly, growth in domestic and international trade, andchanges in freight transport (such as the shift to justin-timedelivery and higher value goods) are leading tosignificant increases in freight transport. Overall, freightmovement is expected to increase by 60 per cent between1990 and 2020, with the greatest growth in the air andtrucking sectors (Figure 4.2).Figure Projected Freight Transport Activityimpact on the environment, primarily due to air emissionsand land use. For example, in 1997, urban automobileuse accounted for 215 grams of greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions per passenger-kilometer, and domestic aviationaccounted for 150 grams. In contrast, urban transit andintercity bus travel accounted for 77 and 26 grams ofGHGs per passenger-km, respectively.Figure Transportation Fuel DemandSource: Delcan Corp. with AK Socio-Technical Consultants,Assessment of Freight Forecasts and Greenhouse Gas Emissions,June 1999Figure Projected Air Freight Transport ActivitySource: Delcan Corp. with AK Socio-Technical Consultants,Assessment of Freight Forecasts and Greenhouse Gas Emissions,June 1999Transportation energy use is expected to rise by over 50per cent from 1990 to 2020, with major increases in thedemand for gasoline, diesel and aviation fuels (Figure4.3). This would lead to increased reliance on oil imports,as well as oil sands and heavy oil, and to an increase inassociated environmental impacts.Unfortunately, the modes showing the greatest growth - privateautomobiles, trucking and aviation - have the greatestSource: Natural Resources Canada, Canada’s EmissionsOutlook: An Update, December 1999Environmental impacts of transportationAlthough transportation provides many economic andsocial benefits, the movement of people and goods hassignificant environmental consequences. These includeincreased use of non-renewable resources (materials andenergy), undesirable pollution (emissions, spills and leaks)and loss of agricultural land and wildlife habitat. Theseenvironmental impacts can generate social and economiccosts, such as higher health care expenses and the costsof cleaning up pollution. Table 4.2 summarizes thestresses associated with transportation and their resultingenvironmental and social impacts.65

Table Transportation and Associated Stresses66StressExhaust emissionsNitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, carbondioxide, toxics and othersSpills and leaksFuel, oil and other material leakage, spills, and solid andhazardous waste by-productsEnergy useConsumption of large amounts of fossil fuelLand useExtensive land requirements (especially road transport),rights of way through sensitive areasOtherAccidents, noise and congestionOriginal Source: Environment Canada, NationalEnvironmental Indicator Series, 1998Since Transport Canada’s first sustainable developmentstrategy, awareness of certain environmental issues relatedto transportation has increased among both government andthe public - notably in the areas of climate change and smog.Canadians are developing a better understanding of theseissues and their correlation with transportation activity.Exhaust emissions, for instance, release nitrogen oxides(NO X), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbondioxide (CO 2) and particulate matter into the air. Theseemissions contribute not only to climate change and acidrain, but also to urban air pollution and smog. In 1995,transportation accounted for 52 per cent of all NO Xemissions in Canada, 40 per cent of CO 2, 20 per cent ofVOCs, and 5 per cent of particulate matter - the majorcontributors to urban smog.The increasing consumption of large amounts of fossilfuels depletes non-renewable natural resources andincreases greenhouse gas emissions. Most scientistsbelieve that these emissions are contributing to globalclimate change, which, it is predicted, will cause greaterfluctuations in weather conditions and crop productionpatterns, and water shortages.Contributes toUrban air pollution and smog events, climate change andacid rain, health effectsContamination of land, surface water and groundwater,release of chlorofluorocarbon and depletion ofstratospheric ozoneDepletion of non-renewable natural resourcesConversion of agricultural land, disruption of habitat,congestion, and disruption of communityHuman stress, injuries and fatalitiescontaining ozone-depleting substances. By 1999 it hadjust 453.Transportation is the single largest contributor ofgreenhouse gas emissions in Canada, accounting forapproximately 25 per cent of Canada’s total greenhousegas emissions in 1997 (Figures 4.4 and 4.5). Accordingly,the transportation sector will play a key role in efforts toachieve Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions target underthe Kyoto Protocol (6 per cent below 1990 levels, averagedfrom 2008 to 2012) - a target which represents just a firststep in addressing climate change.Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Emissions, by SectorTransport Canada has pledged to phase out the productionand importation of ozone-depleting substances. In 1998the department possessed 983 pieces of equipment

Source: Transport Canada, Transportation and ClimateChange: Options for Action, November 1999.Figure 4.5Transportation Greenhouse Gas EmissionsSource: Natural Resources Canada, Canada’s EmissionsOutlook: An Update. December 1999Land use, especially for roads and highways, and rights ofway through sensitive areas, consumes or alters valuableagricultural land, green spaces and wildlife habitat. Suburbansprawl, which consumes land and creates inefficient travelpatterns and congestion, is leading to increased costs anda lower quality of life for many Canadians.In addition, spills and leaks of fuels, oils, and solid andhazardous waste by-products, can contaminate land,surface water and groundwater. They can also pollutelakes, rivers and harbors. Spills and illegal discharges ofoil and oily waste by ships travelling along Canada’s coastcontaminate beaches and fishing areas, and result in deathand sickness for a variety of wildlife, especially sea birds.The percentage of oiled birds collected on Newfoundlandbeaches shows the scope and variability of the problem(Figure 4.6).Figure Oiled Seabirds Collected on NewfoundlandBeachesSource: Wiese, F.K. and P.C. Ryan. 1999. Trends ofchronic oil pollution in Southeast Newfoundland assessedthrough beached-bird surveys 1984-1997. Bird Trends 7:36-40.Health impactsTransportation also affects Canadians’ well-being, in termsof both their safety and overall health. Motor vehicleaccidents account for nearly half the accidental deathsin Canada each year, while smog contributes to a widerange of health effects, including impaired lung function,respiratory infection, asthma attacks and premature death.In 1997, there were 2,927 fatalities from motor vehicletraffic collisions. A study in 2000 by Toronto PublicHealth estimated that each year as many as 1000 Torontoresidents die prematurely and another 5500 are admittedto hospital due to air pollution in the region.In addition, the release of chlorofluorocarbons, suchas from vehicle air conditioning units, is depleting theupper ozone layer. This is resulting in overexposure toultraviolet radiation from the sun, and health concernssuch as increased incidences of skin cancer and cataracts.Transport Canada participates in the Ottawa-CarletonCommuter Challenge, an annual week-long campaign thatpromotes walking, cycling, transit and carpooling. In the2000 Commuter Challenge, 43% of Transport Canada’semployees at headquarters participated in the event,saving 25.7 tons of air pollution.Making the most of opportunitiesGiven the significant impacts of transportation on theenvironment and health of Canadians, substantial stepsare required to truly respond. In trying to reduce theenvironmental impacts of transportation, there are threebroad approaches one can take:• First, since negative impacts (particularly airemissions) are largely determined by the overall levelof transportation, total transportation activity couldbe reduced. This would require difficult changes inCanadians’ transportation habits and patterns, whichcould be accomplished by raising transportation costs,particularly for less sustainable modes, or by controllinginfrastructure expansion, such as road construction.• Second, the overall transportation system could bemade to be more efficient. This would involve workingto reduce congestion, integrating different modes oftransportation, or shifting people and freight to lesspolluting and energy-intensive modes.67

68• Third, each mode of transport could be made lesspolluting by developing new technologies such asmore fuel-efficient vehicles or cleaner fuels. It couldalso involve changing the way some things are done,such as reducing engine idling or increasing efforts toprevent spills and leaks.In promoting sustainable transportation, Transport Canadarecognizes the need to maintain a careful balance of social,economic and environmental objectives. This task is mademore difficult by the incomplete state of informationon transportation activities, the impacts and associatedcosts of these activities, and the costs and implicationsof potential policy measures. Further, Transport Canadamust work in partnership with provincial/territorial andmunicipal governments. However, the willingness ofindividual Canadians to change their travel behavior willultimately determine the extent to which the environmentalimpacts of transportation can be reduced.2. Strategies in Sustainable TransportationTransport Canada has done much work in analyzingthe broad issues around sustainable developmentand implementing the department’s first sustainabledevelopment strategy over the past several years. As aresult, the department has identified, with the help ofstakeholder input, seven strategic challenges for sustainabletransportation, and defined specific commitments foraction. The 29 commitments identify work that thedepartment is committing to do to promote sustainabledevelopment within its own mandate. They focus onareas where the department believes it can make a realdifference toward achieving sustainable transportation.Figure 5.1 outlines the linkages of the key issues and howthey relate to the challenges and commitments.The order in which the strategic challenges are listedbelow does not indicate their priority. Rather, it illustratesthe necessary steps along the journey to sustainabletransportation.1. Improving education and awareness of sustainabletransportation2. Developing tools for better decisions3. Promoting adoption of sustainable transportationtechnology4. Improving environmental management forTransport Canada operations and lands5. Reducing air emissions6. Reducing pollution of water7. Promoting efficient transportationFirst and foremost among the challenges is the need toimprove understanding of the key sustainable transportationissues and challenges, both within Transport Canada andamong Canadians (Challenge 1). Next, effective tools(Challenge 2) and new, more sustainable technologies(Challenge 3) are needed to enable Transport Canadaand others to make more informed decisions.As a next step, Transport Canada needs to demonstrateleadership in improving environmental management ofits own operations and on its own lands (Challenge 4).The department must then work with other governmentsand Canadians to reduce pollution from transportation,particularly in the areas of air emissions (Challenge 5)and water pollution (Challenge 6). Finally, by improvingthe overall efficiency of the transportation system(Challenge 7), negative environmental impacts can bereduced while still meeting the social and economic needsof Canadians.This chapter provides an overview of the broad sustainabletransportation challenges, as well as the commitmentsTransport Canada is making within its mandate in responseto these challenges. An insert contained in this strategy,entitled Transport Canada’s Sustainable DevelopmentAction Plan 2001-2003, details each commitment and itscorresponding targets and performance measures.3. Case study of Port of Fujairah and Port ofKhorfakkan – Living together restlessly as badneighbors for environmental practicesEnvironment has no boundaries and the sharing thewaters between Port of Fujairah and Port of Khorfakkanin UAE was a never ending issue although the locations ofthe ports are in close proximity. One of the fact findingtrip in 2000 to these port operations undertaken by theauthor and students in Trade and Transportation programshowed a difference in approaches to the environmentmanagement of the port and ships docking at the berthswhere the emphasis was one of fast turnaround forcommercial reasons and unable to enforce internationalshipping regulations.Ports are the most important gateway for trade in maritimecountries and thus make a vital contribution to nationaleconomies, and directly or indirectly to employment at alllevels. The port of Fujairah was an important for bunkeringand especially in times of war and regional conflict, itplayed a key role in the country. On the other hand, theport of Khorfakkan developed fast as a remote container

facility for the emirate of Sharjah and maritime tradein the national economy Ports nowadays face the mostchallenging task since the government have started logisticsparks on the same model as that of Dubai Logistics City(www.dubailogisticscity.net) and because they are requiredto respond to the needs of their clients for more efficientfacilities without compromising navigational safety as wellas to comply with strict environmental legislation.Portdevelopment and operational activities have the potentialto impact on environmental and human resources.Although being different in size and scale, ports inFujairah and Khorfakkan all face emerging environmentalproblems related, among other things, to ship discharge(bilge, ballast, and sewage), oil spills (bunkering), heavytraffic, and noise. One severe impact is the presence ofmetals and persistent organic compounds in the water andin the sediments: especially lead, mercury, cadmium andorganotins are found in concentrations of concern. Also oilpollution is chronic in all port areas. The chronic pollutionresults in accumulation of pollutants in the biota, mainlyin benthos (such as oysters, mussels, clams, etc.). Some ofthese are popular local sea products. High concentrationsof pollutants in these organisms might point to a dangerto human health. Another major environmental issue forthe ports in Fujairah and Khorfakkan is the risk of largeoil spills from accidents. The ports lack the necessaryequipment, know-how and training to protect the coastin case of an accident, while the volumes of oil that aretransported are increasing.4. FindingsContinual improvement is key to the success of anysustainable development strategy. To do this, thedepartment must review and evaluate its progress todetermine whether its strategy is on track, whetheractivities are achieving the intended results, and wherecorrective action is needed. Accordingly, Transport Canadawill assess and measure its performance in three ways:First, did the department do what it said it would do?Transport Canada will measure progress in implementingthe 29 commitments in this strategy.Second, are these actions addressing the 7 challengesidentified in the strategy? The department will monitorprogress against selected indicators for each of the sevenchallenges.Third, is Canada making progress on sustainabletransportation? This is a longer-term effort; throughcommitment 2.3 the department is developing a series ofindicators to monitor Canada’s progress on sustainabletransportation.Transport Canada’s Sustainable Development ActionPlan 2001-2003 (insert) lists the indicators selected forTransport Canada’s challenges and commitments.Figure 6.1Spheres of Influence ModelIn the fall of 1999, Transport Canada conducted aseries of internal performance measurement workshopsto define performance indicators for the SustainableDevelopment Strategy 2001 - 2003. Representatives fromacross the department participated in the six workshops,which resulted in a draft set of indicators based on thedepartment's measurement framework.Conclusions and future researchAn integral part of any sustainable development strategyis a well thought out plan to systematically carry out thatstrategy, clearly demonstrate its positive impacts, andencourage ongoing improvement — in essence, to moveeffectively from words to work.Transport Canada’s experience with its first sustainabledevelopment strategy demonstrated that the departmentneeds to improve its system for managing sustainabledevelopment and implementing its commitments.(See Appendix D for a summary of the sustainabledevelopment strategy review).According to World Bank study on transport, the followingrecommendations are noteworthy for future direction ofresearch:• Ensure that the focus of the Bank’s transportoperations goes beyond intercity highways and givesmore attention to issues of growing urgency, includingair pollution, traffic congestion, safety, affordability,and trade.69

70• Prepare a Bank Group transport strategy withan emphasis on greater attention to air and waterpollution, greater synergies across relevant sectors,enhancing knowledge sharing, continued support forprivate sector participation, increasing attention togovernance and corruption issues, and redeployingstaff and budget resources accordingly.• Build up the sector’s monitoring and evaluation effortsand align them with the newWith the institutional partnership of University of Missouri, StLouis, GUST (Gulf University of Science and Technology) hasawarded a summer fellowship to the author to study intermodaltransportation and sustainable development for Kuwait and itsimpact on other GCC states in the summer of 2007The ISO 14001 model for management systemsOne of the most widely recognized standards forenvironmental management is the ISO 14001 model,which addresses organizational structure, planningactivities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processesand resources for environmental policy. portrays themajor components of the ISO management system.A Continuous Improvement Model for SustainableDevelopmentTransport Canada will improve its ability to monitorprogress in implementing its sustainable developmentcommitments and targets, based on the ISO 14001 modelas follows:Policy• Transport Canada recognizes that the support ofthe department’s senior management is critical. Thedepartment will ensure that those senior managersresponsible for implementing specific actions in thisstrategy include these commitments in their annualaccountability accords.Planning• Transport Canada will extend the mandate of itsinternal Sustainable Development Strategy Committeebeyond the year 2000. The Committee will meetregularly to oversee and coordinate implementationof the strategy, to ensure the department’s sustainabledevelopment principles are applied to new policy andprogram initiatives and operations, and to foster bettercoordination of sustainable development activitiesacross Transport Canada.Implementation and Operation• Transport Canada will conduct training in sustainabledevelopment to help key managers and staff increasetheir knowledge of sustainable development. A pilotcourse will be implemented by 2001/2002, and,if successful, a full course will be implemented by2002/2003.• The department will integrate sustainable developmentprinciples into existing training courses, includingTransport Canada’s orientation course and othercourses dealing with safety and management training,by 2002/2003.• The department will increase efforts to help allemployees understand the importance of sustainabledevelopment, by including sustainable developmentarticles in departmental newsletters in 2001/2002.Checking and Corrective Action• Transport Canada will develop a database to monitorthe status of strategy commitments, targets anddeliverables by 2001/2002.• An annual report on implementation of the strategywill be presented to Transport Canada’s seniormanagement committee.• A status report on all sustainable developmentcommitments, targets and indicators will be included in thedepartment’s annual Departmental Performance Report.Management Review• Transport Canada will conduct a review of itssustainable development strategy every three years —the next taking place in 2002/2003.• Transport Canada will extend the mandate of itsexternal National Advisory Group beyond 2000. TheGroup will meet annually to provide strategic directionon the department’s sustainable development priorities,review progress of strategy implementation, and makerecommendations pertaining to review findings.

A model action plan for Transport Canada’s 2001-03Sustainable Development Strategy• Challenge 1: Improving Education and Awareness ofSustainable Transportation• Challenge 2: Developing Tools for Better Decisions• Challenge 3: Promoting Adoption of SustainableTransportation Technology• Challenge 4: Improving Environmental Managementfor Operations and Lands• Challenge 5: Reducing Air Emissions• Challenge 6: Reducing Pollution of Water• Challenge 7: Promoting Efficient TransportationReferences1. Arvind,A. (2003). Environmental Management System –The Automotive Industry and Ford Motor Company, ProjectAssignment of my student in the MBA program atMAHE, Dubai Knowledge Village2. Bannister,D. (ed.)b (1998). Transport policy and theenvironment (London:Spon)3. -- --.Transport Planning, 2 nd edition (2002). Taylor & Francis4. -- -- Transport, Development and Sustainability, UniversityCollege London5. Bannister,D and Button,K.(1993) Transport, theenvironment and sustainable development (London:Spon)6. Carpenter,T.G. (1994). The environmental impact ofrailways (Chichester:Wiley)7. Cleaver,T (2007).Understanding The World Economy,3 rdEdition, Routledge8. Commission o the European Communities (1992).Towards sustainability: a European Commission programme ofpolicy and action in relation to the environment and sustainabledevelopment (Luxembourg:CEC)9. Giuliano,G. (1999). Urban Travel Patterns, Chicheste:Jpohn Wiley & Sons10. Ellwanger,G. (1995). The Internalization of the ExternalEffects of Transport, Rail International11. Hoogma,R. Kemo,R. Schot,J. and Truffer,B.Experimenting for Sustainable Transport: the approachof Strategic Niche Management, Taylor & Francis12. Hunter,C.Farrington.J. and Walton,W. (1998) ModernTransport Geography, John Wilery & SonsUrban13. Koushki,P.A. et al. Urban Air Pollution Impact of ModalShift in School Transportation in Kuwait, Journal of UrbanPlanning and Development14. Madden,C. (1991). When humans roamed the earth(London Earthscan Publications / Kogan Page)15. Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution.(1994). Transport the Environment, 18 th Report16. Transport Canada (2001-2003)– Sustainable DevelopmentStrategy and Transport17. Turnder,R.K., Pearce,D. and Batean,!.(1994)Environmental Economics. Harvester Wheatsheaf18. Sinka,S.K. (1993). Automobile Pollution in India andits human impact, The Enironmentalists 13 (2), 111-1571

7219. Stratford,A. (1974). Airports and the environment (London:Macmillan)20. Suresh.P., (1999). Airline Deregulation and the Transport Policyon Environment, Aston University UK Research paper21. -- -- ( 2002), Transport Planning: The Economics of MovingCargo in UAE, Asia pacific Economic Conference,Universiti Putra Malyasia22. -- -- (2004), Logistics and Tourism: Flipside of the SameCoin, A seminar theme jointly done with NiagaraCollege, Canada23. -- -- and Dr Cicek,O.(2002), Sustainable Tourism: APanacea or Oxymoron, International Tourism Conference,Athens, Greece24. TEST (1991), Wrong side of the tracks? Impacts of roadand rail transport on the environment: a basis for discussion(London Transport and Environment Studies)25. Vigar,G. The Politics of Mobility: transport, the environmentand public policy, Taylor & FrancisInternet SourcesInternational Union for Conservation of Naturewww.iucn.orgThis global coalition of experts distributes extensiveinformation on conservation-related matters around theworld. Tourism specialists might find IUCN’s SustainableUse group helpful, at www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/susg/index.htmlUnited Nations Commission on Sustainable Development(CSD), Tourism Caucuswww.igc.org/csdngo/tourism/tour_index.htmThe Caucus advises the CSD on tourism policy. Its sitegives links to U.N. dialogues on tourism, concept papers,and a discussion mailing list. Open to the public, butmainly for members of pertinent organizations.U.N. Environmental Program (UNEP) SustainableTourism Sitewww.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/sust-tourism/home.htmWell-organized information includes definitions ofsustainable tourism and ecotourism, description ofhttp://www.world-tourism.org/frameset/frame_sustainable.htmlhttp://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/sustainable/http://www.dot.gov/execorder/13274/news/index.htmhttp://web.worldbank.org - Logistics and Statisticstourism impacts, and steps being taken internationallytoward sustainable tourism development.U.N. International Year of Ecotourism-2002 (IYE)www.unepie.org/pc/tourism/ecotourism/iye.htmThis United Nations site explains the IYE. Other usefulsites on it include www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/IYE-Main-Menu.htm, which presents events, news,and other information. You can find reports presentedat the World Ecotourism Summit (held in Quebec City,May 2002) and the resulting Quebec Declaration onEcotourism, at www.ecotourism2002.org.UNESCO World Heritage Centerwww.unesco.org/whc/nwhc/pages/sites/s_f9.htmProvides a list of UNESCO cultural and natural WorldHeritage Sites and describes services that the center offersto member states. Discusses management of protectedareas and sustainable tourism in general.World Tourism Organization (WTO)www.world-tourism.org/frameset/frame_sustainable.htmlThis intergovernmental body works for promotion anddevelopment of tourism. The site provides recent tourismstatistics and includes a sustainable tourism section withdefinitions, information on relevant events, and lists ofWTO’s activities and publications.World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC)www.wttc.org/stratdevWTTC represents the travel industry. Members aremainly larger companies. The site includes informationon sustainable tourism and various WTTC initiatives andservices.The World Bank Group: International FinanceCorporation (IFC)www.ifc.org/enviro/EPU/STourism/stourism.htmPart of the World Bank, IFC finances private-sectorprojects in the developing world, including those insustainable tourism. Through the Global EnvironmentFacility, IFC also funds some small ecotourism projects aspart of the biodiversity protection initiative.

GlossaryAdvanced Technology Vehicles (ATVs): Vehicles withavailable, or soon to be available, technologies able toimprove fuel efficiency, reduce air emissions and contributeto the development of cleaner, sustainable transportationsystems. Examples of advanced technologies include newpowertrains and accessories (gasoline and diesel directinjection engines), new body construction and innovations(use of lightweight and/or recyclable materials, smallsize/dimensions), lightweight metals and composites, andadvanced emission control devices and fuels.Biodiversity: The variety of different species, the geneticvariability of each species, and the variety of differentecosystems that they form.Canada-wide Environmental Standards Sub-Agreement:a framework for federal, provincial, and territorialEnvironment Ministers to work together to addresskey environmental protection and health risk reductionissues that require common environmental standardsacross the country. Transport Canada participated inthe development of the first Canada-wide Standardson particulate matter and ozone, which will assist withmeeting air quality standards.Climate Change: A warming of the Earth’s atmospherecaused by increases in the atmosphere of certain gasesthat absorb the radiation emitted by the Earth, therebyretarding the loss of energy from the system to space.Cost Internalization: (see Full-Cost Accounting)Eco-efficiency: A concept developed for business, ecoefficiencyis reached by the delivery of competitivelypriced goods and services that satisfy human needsand bring quality of life, while progressively reducingecological impacts and resource intensity throughoutthe life cycle to a level in line with the Earth’s estimatedcarrying capacity.Ecosystem: An integrated and stable association of livingand non-living resources functioning within a definedphysical location.Environmental Assessment (EA): A planning tool whichsystematically identifies and assesses the environmentaleffects of proposed projects before they occur, with theaim of taking the potential effects into account in projectdecision-making before irrevocable decisions are made.Environmental Management Systems (EMS):A systematic approach for organizations to bringenvironmental considerations into decision making andday-to-day operations. It also establishes a system fortracking, evaluating and communicating environmentalperformance. An EMS helps ensure that majorenvironmental risks and liabilities are identified, minimizedand managed. The ISO 14001 standard, EnvironmentalManagement Systems, is the standard within the ISO 14000series that specifies the requirements of an environmentalmanagement system. See also ISO 14000Equity: The fair distribution of the costs and benefitsof human activity between people. Its two componentsare inter-generational equity and current equity amongpeople or groups of people.Full-Cost Accounting (Cost Internalization): Anaccounting method that determines total value orfinal price by internalizing non-market values such asenvironmental and social costs and benefits.Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): Gases in the atmospherethat trap the sun’s energy and thereby contribute torising surface temperatures. The main greenhouse gasthat contributes to climate change is carbon dioxide, abyproduct of burning fossil fuels.Indicators: A statistic, tracked over time, that providestrends in the condition of a phenomenon, beyond theproperties of just the statistic itself. It points to, or providesthe means to assess, progress toward an objective.Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): Theapplication, in an integrated manner, of advancedinformation processing (computers), communications,sensor and control technologies and management strategies,to improve the functioning of the transportation system.Intermodal freight transportation: The use of twoor more modes to move a shipment from origin todestination. An intermodal movement includes all aspectsof the supply chain involved in the movement and transferof goods under a single freight bill.International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO):Formed under the 1944 Convention on International CivilAviation, with aims and objectives “to develop the principlesand techniques of international air navigation and tofoster the planning and development of international airtransport.” The Convention established certain principlesand arrangements in order that international civil aviation73

74may be developed in a safe and orderly manner and thatinternational air transport services may be established onthe basis of equality of opportunity and operated soundlyand economically. Canada is a member.International Maritime Organization (IMO):Established in 1948 by the United Nations MaritimeConference, the purposes of the Organization are “toprovide machinery for co-operation among Governmentsin the field of governmental regulation and practicesrelating to technical matters of all kinds affecting shippingengaged in international trade; and to encourage andfacilitate the general adoption of the highest practicablestandards in matters concerning maritime safety, efficiencyof navigation and prevention and control of marinepollution from ships.” The Organization has 158 MemberStates, including Canada.Issue Scan: An assessment of a department’s activities interms of their impact on sustainable development.ISO 14000: A series of international, voluntaryenvironmental management standards. Developed underInternational Organization for Standardization TechnicalCommittee 207, the 14000 series of standards addressthe following aspects of environmental management:Environmental Management Systems (EMS),Environmental Auditing and Related Investigations(EA&RI), Environmental Labels and Declarations (EL),Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE), LifeCycle Assessment (LCA), and Terms and Definitions(T&D). See also Environmental Management SystemsKyoto Protocol: An International Protocol negotiatedin December 1997 under the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change in Kyoto, Japan. Underthe Protocol, Canada agreed to reduce its emissions ofgreenhouse gases to 6 per cent below 1990 levels duringthe five-year period of 2008 to 2012.Moving On Sustainable Transportation (MOST)program: A contribution program established in 1999by Transport Canada to support projects that producesustainable transportation education, awareness andanalytical tools.National Advisory Group (NAG): A committee createdin 1996 by Transport Canada to advise the department onthe development and consultations of its 1997 strategy.Composed of transportation and environmental experts,the National Advisory Group was re-established byTransport Canada in 2000 to advise the department on itsSustainable Development Strategy 2001-2003.Natural Resource Inventory (NRI): A process ofcharacterizing natural resources, identifying valuedecosystem components, and determining potentialimpacts.Non-Renewable Resources: Those natural resourcesthat are in fixed supply, but whose lifespan can be extendedthrough more efficient or reduced use, reuse or recycling(i.e. minerals, oil, coal).Ozone Depletion: Stratospheric ozone (O 3) is formedfrom the conversion of oxygen (O 2) molecules by solarradiation. It absorbs much ultraviolet (UV) radiationand prevents it from reaching the Earth. Certain ozonedepleting substances (ODSs) are reducing the amount ofozone that absorbs this UV radiation.Polluter Pays: The polluter should, in principle, bear thecost of pollution.Pollution Prevention: The use of processes, practices,materials, products or energy that avoid or minimize thecreation of pollutants or wastes and reduce overall risk tohuman health or the environment.Precautionary Principle: When there are threats ofserious or irreversible damage, scientific uncertaintyshall not be used to postpone cost-effective measures toprevent environmental degradation.Rio + 10: The tenth anniversary of the 1992 EarthSummit will take place in 2002 and be marked by a headof state/government summit. In 1992, more than 100heads of state met in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for the UnitedNations Conference on Environment and Development(UNCED). The 1992 Earth Summit was convened toaddress urgent problems of environmental protectionand socio-economic development. The assembled leaderssigned The Framework Convention on Climate Changeand the Convention on Biological Diversity; endorsed theRio Declaration and the Forest Principles; and adoptedAgenda 21, a 300-page plan for achieving sustainabledevelopment in the 21st century.Risk Management: The selection and implementationof a strategy of control of risk, followed by monitoring

and evaluation of the effectiveness of that strategy. Riskmanagement may include direct remedial actions or otherstrategies that reduce the probability, intensity, frequencyor duration of the exposure to contamination.Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA): Thesystematic and comprehensive process of evaluatingthe environmental effects of a proposed policy, planor program and its alternatives. SEA is a key tool forincorporating sustainable development considerationsinto government decisions.Sustainable Development: Development that meets theneeds of the present without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs.Sustainable Development Strategy: In accordance withthe Auditor General Act, the strategy that each Ministerresponsible for a department is required to submitto Parliament every three years, beginning in 1997. Itoutlines the department’s concrete goals and action plansfor integrating sustainable development into its policies,programs and operations.Sustainable Development Strategy Committee:Comprised of managers from each group and region ofTransport Canada, the Committee was re-established in2000 to oversee the development of the department’ssecond sustainable development strategy and to provide aforum for sharing information and practices concerningsustainable development across the department.75United Nations Commission on SustainableDevelopment (UNCSD): The Commission onSustainable Development (CSD) was created in December1992 to ensure effective follow-up of the United NationsConference on Environment and Development (UNCED)and to monitor and report on implementation of the1992 Earth Summit agreements at the local, national,regional and international levels. The CSD is a functionalcommission of the UN Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC), with 53 members. UNCSD9 is the ninthmeeting of the CSD and will take place in spring 2001 inNew York. One of the key themes to be discussed at thissession is sustainable transportation.

28. Tables – 1 Environmental Management – Study of Canada76SignificantEnvironmentalAspectStatus in January20001) Air Emissions Transport Canada’sGHG baseline isapproximately 70million kilogramsof CO 2equivalentin 1998/1999.2) ContaminatedLandOf 1,110properties,Transport Canadahas 686 potentiallycontaminatedsites, of which571 have beenassessed and 115are suspected forcontamination andrequire assessment.From 1996 to 1999,Transport Canadaspent $21.4 millionon assessments,$1.2 million on riskmanagement, and$11.9 million onremediation. From1999 to 2000, thedepartment spentapproximately$15 million onassessment andremediation.Objective Target Proposed PerformanceIndicatorsMeasure,monitor, reduceand reportGHG emissionsfrom TransportCanadaoperations.Increasenumber oflow emissionvehicles (i.e.alternativefuel vehicles)in operationalfleet.Identify andmanage allTransportCanadacontaminatedsites.• Finalize GHG emissionsbaseline by 2001/2002.• Adopt a formal GHGemissions reduction target,based on a share of thefederal reduction target, by2001/2002.• Report departmentalGHG emissions annuallyfrom 2001.• 50 per cent of vehiclespurchased between 2001and 2003 to be lowemission vehicles.• Develop a contaminatedsites management frameworkby 2001/2002.• Inventory and remediateor risk manage all sites by2003/2004.• Transport Canadaemissions,expressed in CO2equivalents/year,kilograms/year andper cent differencefrom baseline.• Per cent of lowemission vehiclespurchased of totalannual vehiclespurchased.• Environmentalcosts and liabilitiesas reported toTreasury Board.• Number ofcontaminatedsites undergoingremediation or riskmanagement.

3) Non-hazardousWasteEight TransportCanada facilities oroffices conductedwaste audits in1999 and reportedtheir rates ofdiversion fromlandfill.Increase currentlandfill diversionrates at selectedfacilities.• Implement or increasenon-hazardous wasterecycling at selectedTransport Canada Centres(TCCs):• Establish baseline inVancouver by 2001/2002and in Sudbury, Kingstonand Pickering by2002/2003.• Per cent wastediverted fromlandfill (i.e.recyclable waste/total waste) per yearor per person.• Kilograms wastegenerated perperson per year.• 5 per cent improvementfrom baseline in Quebecby 2002/2003 and inMoncton, Dartmouth &St. John’s by 2003/2004.• 10 per cent improvementfrom baseline in Winnipeg& Edmonton by2003/2004.4) Storage Tanks Transport Canadaowned andoperated 146tanks, of which78 per cent arein compliancewith the CanadianEnvironmentalProtection Act(CEPA). TransportCanada anticipates100 per centcompliance by2001/2002.Ensurecompliancewith CEPATank TechnicalGuidelines.• Maintain and/or improvecurrent 88 per centdiversion rate at Ottawaheadquarters.• Ensure 100 per centcompliance with CEPATank Technical Guidelinesby conducting regionaltank audits.• Per cent of tanksin compliancewith CEPATank TechnicalGuidelines.• Number of tanksaudited per year perregion.775) EnvironmentalEmergenciesEnvironmentalemergency planswere in placeat all TransportCanada-owned andoperated airports.Increaseenvironmentalemergencyplanning atTC-ownedand operatedfacilities.• Revise and/or developemergency plans for allTC-owned and operatedfacilities by 2003/2004.• Per cent of plans inplace.• Per cent of plansup to date (i.e.revised withinspecified timeframe).

6) EnvironmentalAwarenessNo baseline onawareness level ofTransport Canadaemployees currentlyexists.Increaseawarenessof TCemployees onenvironmentalissues,procurementand greencommuting.SOURCE: Transport Canada 2007, Ministry of Transport, Ottawa• Measure baselineawareness level ofTC employees by2001/2002.• Deliver targetedenvironmentalmanagementand sustainabledevelopmentawareness programsby 2003/2004.• Per cent increasein awareness,as measured bysurveys or testing.78

Transportation GHG Emissions by Energy Source and Transportation Mode1990 1991 1992 1993 1994Total GHG Emissions (Mt of CO2e) a,b,c 135.0 129.9 132.9 134.6 141.5Passenger Transportation b,c 81.2 77.5 78.7 79.3 82.1Freight Transportation b,c 50.1 48.4 50.1 51.2 55.2Off-Road b,c 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.2GHG Emissions by Energy Source (Mt of CO2e) a,b,cElectricity 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1Natural Gas 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1Motor Gasoline 80.0 77.8 79.5 81.7 84.3Diesel Fuel Oil 34.6 32.6 33.2 34.7 38.1Light Fuel Oil and Kerosene 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0Heavy Fuel Oil 4.5 5.0 4.9 4.2 4.5Aviation Gasoline 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3Aviation Turbo Fuel 13.2 11.8 12.2 11.7 12.3Propane 2.1 2.2 2.5 1.9 1.8GHG Emissions by Transportation Mode (Mt of CO2e) a,b,cSmall Cars 22.6 22.5 22.9 23.3 23.7Large Cars 25.1 23.9 23.6 23.4 23.3Passenger Light Trucks 16.3 15.4 16.5 17.4 19.0Freight Light Trucks 7.9 7.5 8.1 8.2 8.8Medium Trucks 9.2 9.5 9.8 10.2 10.3Heavy Trucks 17.6 16.2 16.6 18.3 20.8Motorcycles 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1School Buses 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.1Urban Transit 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.8Inter-City Buses 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6Passenger Air 13.0 11.6 11.9 11.5 12.1Freight Air 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5Passenger Rail 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2Freight Rail 6.7 6.3 6.7 6.6 6.9Marine 8.1 8.4 8.4 7.4 7.9Off-Road 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.279GHG Intensity (tonne/TJ) a,b,c 71.9 71.9 71.8 71.9 71.9GHG Emissions Related to Electricity (Mt of CO2e) a,c 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1

80Iran, the US, and HighlyEnriched UraniumShareefa Al-AdwaniGood Things Come in ThreesThe benefit of a liberal arts education allows theappreciation and tolerance of multifarious perspectives.Points of view ranging from the moderate to the radicalare given weight when they are supplemented by evidence,as following the social science methodology. The value ofthis diversity allows the mind to see beyond the dualityof black and white, and enter the colorful world ofdialogistical possibilities, multidimensional potentialitiesand manifold probabilities.Yet a large portion of the academic arena has curiouslythriven on an approach of engaging opposing extremedualities in a certain conceptual matter. This conceptualissue is that concerning “the East verses the West”. Theopposing members of these dyads are historically situatedin High Middle Ages. One of the earliest tangible piecesof evidence of the tension between the East and theWest were the decrees of Pope Alexander II in 1063,which gave a papal standard to those who were in battlesagainst Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula. The phrase“East and West”, as used in current scholarly journals,by academics, and by the media, implies an imaginarydividing line between the countries of North Americaand Europe (the West) and the countries of the MiddleEast and North Africa (the East). The continued usage ofthis terminology still alludes to a separation between thetwo areas and thus stratifies the blocs into ideologicallyopposing poles.The current reality is that this line (an intangible signifierof the ideological division between the two regions) hasbeen deepened and perpetuated by scholars and politiciansalike. Huntington’s resounding Clash of Civilizations is theparadigmatic example which encompasses the impactthat this jargon of partition has made on the academicworld. Huntington predicted, based on his interpretationof historical indicators, that eventually there would be awar between the Western and Islamic civilizations. In theworld of international politics, President George W. Bushrecently claimed that the US was “in a great ideologicalstruggle,” and called to leaders in the Middle East tostabilize the region and extract the extremist Muslims whopropagate their radical vision. Linguistically, what Bush’sspeech writers had failed to notice is that it is precisely thejargon used in a speech such as his that perpetuates thedichotomy of regional opposites.One of the many dangers as an academic, therefore, isattempting to present a third perspective in a theoreticalworld of dualities, because that tertiary notion will likelybe relegated to categorically accord with one side oranother. In a political realm where one is either “with”one side or “against” that side, I feel impelled to voicea third opinion to break the Orwellian tragedy. VariousI use the language of cardinal directionality due to the fact that the concept of the Orient/Occident is recognizable as a duality in itself, as wellas for the reason that the academics in this arena themselves utilize this lexicon. Perhaps most ironic is that once the terminology of “East andWest” has been parsed, it is realized that there must be a third category of [other] states. South America, East Asia, Africa, and Russia areall seen as non-participants in this culturally bipolar conceptual structure.The vexillum sancti Petri refers to the Bible’s Matthew 16:19, where Jesus says to Simon Peter, “I will give you the keys of the Kingdom ofheaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.” Pope Alexander II isenfranchising himself with the authority of being able to condemn men to hell and raise men to heaven because he is the highest authority closestto God. It follows that the Pope assured a heavenly abode to those who committed the act of killing a Muslim. He also offered plenary andpartial indulgences so that the Christian soldiers would be absolved of their temporal sins.Even earlier, the Orient / Occident division may be traced to the Roman Emperor Diocletian in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries. I do notwish to use this division, mostly because Diocletian’s “East-West” division referred to what was east and west of Rome, quite dissimilar to the“East-West” meaning we know today. Following Diocletian’s methodology, the West would have included territories of North Africa (sectionsof modern-day Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis) and the East would have indicated that Greece and the Balkans were of the Orient.Said, Edward W. Orientalism. (New York: Random House, Inc., 1979.)It is noted that even the term “Middle East” is highly ambiguous, as it is mostly a state-centric term derived from the archaic “The Near East”by the British colonial power after the Second World War. The region in question is located in the “Middle” of the way to India and “East”of London. In this essay, “Middle East” refers to area bounded by the east by Sinai and by the west by Iran, and by bounded by the north byTurkey and by the south by Yemen. The meaning of “Middle East” as we now understand it has only taken form after the lexicon was assigned.

attempts have been made to maintain an unbiasedapproach to the matter, and I will also venture an irenicsolution to the dueling factions, which will give neitherside the upper hand, but will invariably seem to each asthough its counterpart has the relative gain.But there is neither East or West, Border, nor Breed, nor BirthWhen two strong men stand face to face, tho’ they come from theends of the earth“The Ballad of East and West,” Rudyard KiplingThe contention over the purpose of the enrichmentof uranium in Iran is one of the largest diplomaticconflicts in the world today. Uranium enrichment cancreate civilian nuclear energy, but is also a key step in theprocess for creating a nuclear weapon. The possibility ofa nuclear Iran has roused the current hegemonic power,the United States, into a multimedia offensive approachto the issue. Through various forums, America has triedto find every way to stop Iran from possibly developing anuclear weapon. Iran has ignored all attempts by the USand international organizations and has continued withits developments. The American response from GeorgeW. Bush was to publicly label Iran as a member of the“axis of evil,” a term that has replaced “countries ofconcern” (which had, in turn, replaced the label “rougestate” used under the Clinton Administration), but hasthe same implication. The tension between Iran and theUnited States of America has been so high that the enmitybetween the two has been called a “Cold War,” which mayor may not explain Bush’s rhetorical allusions to “good”and “evil”, the ultimate labels when using the discourse ofdivisiveness. This leads to the following question: Whatare the reasons behind Iran’s uranium enrichment? Oncethis question is answered, a solution may be found whereboth the United States and Iran will no longer be engagedin a “Cold War,” but instead will be able to gear theirforeign policies accordingly for a more stable world.I argue that Iran’s nuclear program has three reasonsbehind its development. First of all, Iran may wish todevelop a nuclear weapon to deter the United States fromgetting involved in its domestic policies. Historically, thewestern hegemon has been involved in Iranian politicsfor half a century, and the Islamic Revolution was oneof many backlashes that occurred as a result. Joining thenuclear club will allow Iran some of the insulation it haswanted for many years. Secondly, Iran hopes to createcivilian energy, as its oil resources are depleting. Oil isa limited resource, and there has been evidence showingthat Iranian oil is running out. Finally, Iran desires tocreate a new defense-industrial sector that will improve itseconomy by selling uranium to other states. This is not anew market, but Iran’s involvement in it will be.My methodology will proceed as follows: I use a realistperspective when understanding the deterrent quality ofnuclear weapons, and thus will explain the approach tonuclear strategy in this systemic paradigm. I will thenlook at the history between Iran and the United States81“…The major component in European culture is…the idea of European identity as a superior one…The hegemony of European ideas aboutthe Orient, themselves reiterating European superiority over Oriental backwardness…” (Said 7)This tactic was also used during the Cold War, when the USSR was labeled the “evil empire” during Reagan’s administration. The Reagandoctrine reinforced this ideological divide, and this had resoundingly divisionary effects.“The Reagan Doctrine.” US Department of State. (1980).http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dr/17741.htm. (accessed: May 14, 2007).Huntington, Samuel P. “Clash of Civilizations.” Foreign Affairs. (Summer 1993). 22-49. 41 & 46.Bush, George W. UN Speech. CNN.com. (September 19, 2007.)http://www.cnn.com/2006/POLITICS/09/19/bush.transcript/index.html. (accessed December 23, 2006).“My contention is that Orientalism is fundamentally a political doctrine willed over the Orient because the Orient was weaker than the West…”(Said 204). George Bush is manifesting his latent Orientalism. (lexicon attributed to Said 206)Bush, George W. “You are either with us or against us”. CNN.com. (November 6, 2001).http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/11/06/gen.attack.on.terror. (accessed December 24, 2006).The US had been lobbying various corporations, European states, and Russia for the past 20 years so that the transfer of any materialcomponents for the nuclear project sites.

82since the 1951 nationalization of the Iranian oil industry,and will demonstrate that any positive relations betweenthe two states have been tenuous at best. Next, I exploreeach of the three reasons for Iran’s nuclear developmentin turn, not to advocate its position, but instead to offera comprehensive explanation for it. I then follow witha recommendation to US policymakers and Iraniandiplomats as to how to approach the issue by sing a fewPersian Gulf countries as “middlemen.”A world without nuclear weapons would be less stableand more dangerous for all of us.Margaret ThatcherNuclear weapons proliferation is inevitable. Informationon how to create a weapon is difficult to contain, withthe prime example being A.Q. Khan, the founder ofPakistan’s nuclear weapons program who transferredvital information on nuclear weapons to Libya, Iran, andNorth Korea. With the advent of globalization and thespeed and amount of information transfer increasing ata hyper exponential rate, it is not surprising that dozensof Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan-esques are busy runninginternational information-transfer rings and profitingfrom their scientific knowledge by selling their knowledgeto the highest bidder. Specifically, Iran, which has had atangible nuclear program since the 1970s and has beentraining its citizens in nuclear science since the 1950sat Tehran Polytechnic (now the Amirkabir Universityof Technology), has also profited directly from A. Q.Khan’s information during the late 80s and early 90s. It iscurrently one of the states enriching uranium, a red flagthat signifies nuclear development, whether for energy orfor weaponry.As Iran has been enriching uranium to an extent closertowards weapons grade material (Highly EnrichedUranium), a discussion of the possibility that states maydevelop nuclear weapons is in order. Perhaps an excursusof “nuclear weapons proliferation” will allow theunfamiliar to become matter-of-fact and permit a rationalapproach to the issue. As the fear resides in the idea thatthere maybe an eventual military confrontation betweenIran and the United States, I will begin by addressing theissue of war and how war as a concept, may, in fact, bethe cause of peace.In an anarchic world where the state of existence isbellum omnium contra omnes, states have recognized that theconcept of “war” is not simply about war-fighting, butalso is the willingness to engage in battle. In other words,war is conceptually both war-fighting and the possibility ofwar-fighting. To address both aspects of the concept ofwar, the preparation thereof is tantamount to that state’sexistence. A state’s primary responsibility to the people isto provide security, and it logically follows that states tendto prepare for war by enhancing the most visible sectorinvolved in war: the military.Koch, Andrew and Jeanette Wolf. “Iran’s Nuclear Facilities: a Profile” Center for Nonproliferation Studies.(1998). http://www.cns.miis.edu/pubs/reports/pdfs/iranrpt.pdf. (accessed December 26, 2006).“Iran aggressively pursues…weapons [of mass destruction] and exports terror…states like these constitute an axis of evil, arming to threatenthe peace of the world…”Bush, George W. State of the Union Address. CNN.com. (January 29, 2002).http://archives.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/01/29/bush.speech.txt/. (accessed December 26, 2006).The Clinton Administration identified the same three “axis of evil” states, Iran, Iraq, and North Korea, as the states which pose the most seriousthreat to nonproliferation.Vetsko, Alexander. “Bush Administration’s Non-Proliferation Policy.” Carnegie Moscow Center. (May 17, 2002). http://www.carnegie.ru/en/news/47888.htm. (accessed December 26, 2006).Although the lexicon had changed, the same three countries were identified by the Bush Administration as posing the same threat.Sanger, David E., and Alaine Sciolino. “Iran Strategy: Cold War Echo.” The New York Times. (April 30,2006). http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/30/world/middleeast/30iran.html?ex=1304049600&en=b85e52b87d6e94d0&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss. (accessed December 26, 2006).Reynolds, Paul. “New Cold War Looms with Iran.” BBC.com. (March 13, 2006).http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4801786.stm. (accessed December 26, 2006).The name “Persian Gulf” is used here to indicate the body of water shared by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, the United ArabEmirates, and Oman. There is no symbolic intent in the usage of this geographical term, as it is simply the designation recognized by the United Nations.

Developing countries, however, cannot keep up withlarge powers in a conventional arms race. The cost ofmaintaining an arms race is astronomical. In 2006, theUSA’s military expenditures alone at 563.2 billion dollarswas comparable to Iran’s entire GDP of 610.4 billiondollars. Moreover, Iran has had to compensate for a1992 US arms embargo, creating its own planes, tanks,and missiles. Competitively speaking, Iran’s most costeffectivechoice would be to develop a single super-weaponto deter the United States. This choice is seen be fiscallydeficient states as a viable option towards mitigating thepower gap between richer states and poorer states.This may seem like a radical claim. However, it may helpto understand the term “cost” in relation to effectivenessbeyond simply the fiscal consideration. Strategists andgenerals involved in conventional wars in the past centuryhave based much of their strategy with an excogitationof General Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff ’s“Total War,” wherein losing and winning are the onlytwo outcomes according to a “Total War.” Whether theconventional war is a Total War or not, the “punishmentstrategy” of Total War is often employed and celebratedas a winning strategy. The punishment strategy involves amanipulation of the opponent’s costs to an unacceptablelevel, ideally causing the opponent to declare defeat.The attacking state thus uses the following cost-benefitanalysis:(PC * C) - (PB * B) < RWhere:PC = Perception of CostC = CostPB = Perception of BenefitB = BenefitR = Value of ResistanceThe attacking state will thus use punishment to increaseboth the opposing state’s perceived cost (PC) as well as thecost (C). If the opponent’s overall cost is higher than itsvalue of resistance, it will create a high level of destruction.Destruction does not necessarily lead to loss in the senseof Total War Loss, but it does lead to a large amount ofhuman lives lost, a devastation that may or may not causethe opponent to fold. In sum, conceptually and practically,war-fighting involves the strategy of punishment, leadingto the outcome of devastation.The use of nuclear weapons also involves the strategy ofpunishment and leads to the outcome of a huge amountof lives lost. The US’s nuclear attacks on Hiroshima andNagasaki were certainly successful punishment strategies,as any future use of nuclear weapons on civilian populationswould be. Hiroshima’s death toll was ultimately 140,000people in a population of 255,000. With the considerationthat only 1.38% of the bomb fissiled and had a one miledestruction radius, the percentage death of more than83Varian, Hal and Peter Lyman. “How Much Information? 2003.” Executive Summary. Regents of theUniversity of California. (October 27, 2003). file://///Herald/www/research/projects/how-much- info-2003/execsum.htm. (accessedDecember 26, 2006).“I am aware of the vital criticality of Pakistan’s nuclear programme to our national security...The recent investigation was ordered by thegovernment of Pakistan consequent to the disturbing disclosures and evidence by some countries to international agencies relating to allegedproliferation activities by certain Pakistanis and foreigners over the last two decades…Many of the reported activities did occur and that these wereinevitably initiated at my behest. In my interviews with the concerned government officials, I was confronted with the evidence and the findings andI have voluntarily admitted that much of it is true and accurate. I take full responsibility for my actions and seek your pardon.”Transcript of Appearance on Pakistan Television Corporation:Khan, Abdul Qadeer. “I Seek your Pardon.” Guardian Unlimited. (February 5, 2004).http://www.guardian.co.uk/pakistan/Story/0,2763,1141630,00.html. (accessed December 26 2006).In 1974, Siemens and its subsidiary Krafewerke Union, German-owned businesses, began to make a nuclear power plant in Bushehr, Iran.“Russia: Nuclear Exports to Iran: Reactors.” Nuclear Threat Initiative. NTI.org. (November 6, 2002).http://www.nti.org/db/nisprofs/russia/exports/rusiran/react.htm. (accessed May 11, 2007).In the same year, Iran had the French company Framatome (now Areva NP) survey the area of Darkhovin to find a suitable place for two 950MW Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) for the Karun site.Spector, Leonard S. Nuclear Ambitions. (Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1990).Milivojevic, Marko. “Russia and Iran: Nuclear Deal.” Middle East International. (January 20, 1995) p.14Nuclear Engineering International, World Nuclear Handbook 1996. (Surrey, U.K.: Reed Business Publishing,

8450% of the population is astonishing. The droppingof the nuclear bomb was the most influential factor inJapan’s surrender, thus making this punishment strategya successful one. Nuclear weapons, especially the onescreated today, out power Hiroshima’s “Little Boy” by 80:1.Any state threatened with a nuclear attack would mostcertainly consider the high cost in receiving the attack andrealize that the [punishment] damage was categoricallyeither unacceptable damage or irreplaceable damage.Iran currently has a medium-range ballistic missile, theShahab-3, which has a path radius of 2,100 kilometers.Developed in 1998, this MRBM has the ability to strikemany American allies. Anticipating a regional threat, Israeland the US jointly developed an anti-ballistic missile, theArrow missile, which has the capacity to intercept shortrange and medium range ballistic missiles via a radartracking device that targets the missile in the midcoursephase of its flight.Let us now imagine the most feared scenario: If Irandecided to create a nuclear weapon, and if Iran successfullydemolished a neighboring country or city that was anAmerican ally, what would happen? At this point, it maybe best to realize that there are two categories of strikingcapabilities. According to the National IntelligenceEstimate, in the year 2015, Iran would have a nuclearweapon. One nuclear weapon. With a single weapon,Iran may have Type I Deterrence, or First-strike capability,meaning that Iran could launch the weapon and strikeanother city, thus devastating the population. This iscategorically known as “deterrence by punishment.”However, first-strike capability also means that Iran couldhave its single nuclear weapon wiped out by a preemptivestrike or by a successful ABM. Israel has had a past withthe preemptive strike against nuclear programs and alsohas second strike capability. The US has a past withnuclear blackmail and has second-strike capability sincethe 1960s. If Iran tried to strike any city or country thatwas deemed a “vital interest” to the United States, the USand or that state would massively retaliate. The casualtieswould be enormous. One-seventh of Iran’s populationlives in Tehran. If the retaliation strike hit Iran’s five mostdensely populated cities of Tehran, Mashhad, Isfahan,Shiraz, and Ahvaz, 46 % of the population would beaffected. If the top 10 cities were struck, 67 % of thepopulation would be affected. This certainly is at both“irreplaceable damage” and “unacceptable damage” manytimes over. Iran would not be able to survive a retaliationstrike.Dulce Et Decorum Est Pro Allah Mori?The argument currently used against Iran is that the state,and particularly the style of government, is not as rationalas other governments. Any other government wouldrecognize the consequences of having an enormouspercent of its population and infrastructure depleted in afew flashes of light as tantamount to a complete failure ofthe state and the state’s primary responsibility: the securityof its people. Yet arguments have been made by highofficials in the US Government that Iran has a culture ofmartyrdom. They continue to say that Iran would thussacrifice itself as a state in order to fulfill its ultimate dreamof martyrdom. Yet martyrdom is not a concept chosen forthe people by the state. Martyrdom on this massive scalecalls for, according to Ahmedinejad, voluntary choice. Hewill not allow his state to fail, nor his people to die unlessthey choose to do so. For those who have made thechoice, they join the “Commando of Voluntary Martyrs,”yet these 52,000 troops only are tactically sanctioned fordomestic, rather than international, use. Ahmadinejad isindirectly funneling his “cult of martyrdom” into a sectorthat will bring him more assets rather than liabilities.According to Iranian National Security Advisor, AliLarijani, “In the Islamic school of thought, mass murderis a great sin.” Ahmadenejad himself stated that “We allcondemn terrorism, because its victims are the innocent”in a letter to the American people. Strategically speaking,Iran may also be working with American’s misconceptions1995). p.22.It is interesting to note that Siemens currently has a 34% stake in Areva NP.The nuclear technology center in Isfahan was also created with the assistance of the French in the 1970s.“Iran’s Nuclear Program.” Risk Report 1. (September 1995).http://www.wisconsinproject.org/countries/iran/nuke.html. (accessed December 26, 2006).ALL sources mentioned in this footnote are from the following secondary source: (Koch and Wolf)Enrichment of uranium for nuclear energy (civilian) purposes uses only 3-5% of the isotope U-235, while weapons grade uranium is composedof 94% U-235. It is important to remember that HEU, highly enriched uranium (over 20% enrichment) may be blended with LEU (lowenricheduranium) and sold in the uranium market to state buyers for their fuel reactors. This is a profitable business.

towards Iran. “It is a paradox of deterrence that inthreatening to hurt somebody if he misbehaves, it neednot make a critical difference how much it would hurtyou too – if you can make him believe the threat.” Iran’srhetorical manipulations may in fact be necessary forthe US to believe that the Iranians are resolved in theirdecision to stand firm and defend their state.Therefore, if Iran is not developing a nuclear weapon touse against a state, it is certainly developing the capacityto defend itself. Nuclear weapons are both offensive anddefensive weapons, and the nuclear weapon is certainly astrong deterrent, when regarding the weapon as defensive.Hobbes mentioned that “the passion…that incline[s] mento peace [is the] fear of death.” The state of Iran fears aretaliatory strike, as the punishment strike would cause theRepublic to cease to exist. By creating a nuclear weapon,Iran would be able to prepare for war, yet maintain thepeace.If you want to understand today, you have to searchyesterday.Pearl BuckWhy, then, would Iran want to deter the US? The US hashad a hand in the Middle East for more than 50 years.In 1951, Mohammed Mossadegh, thought to have beenaligned with the Communist Tudeh party by both theBritish and the Americans, led the Iranian Parliamentin its move to nationalize the Iranian oil industry. TheBritish were immediately economically concerned withthe future of their Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, yet theywould not make a move against the new Prime MinisterMossadegh until they could extract a promise of aid fromthe US. The US President at the time was focused on theCold War, and so the British had to wait to make theirmove. In Iran, Mossadegh was gaining support amongthe people of Iran as well as within the Parliament.Mohammed Reza Shah, the Shahanshah, was highly awareof the changing domestic power structure, and began totighten his authoritarian grip.When General Dwight D. Eisenhower became USPresident in 1953, he gave his permission to his Secretaryof State, John Foster Dulles, and his CIA Director, AllenWelsh Dulles, to coordinate Operation Ajax with theBritish. The Operation, led by Kermit Roosevelt, initiallyfailed and Mossadegh rose to power. The Shah fled andstayed in Italy, but a few days later, returned to Iran andwas ultimately reinstated by the American covert forces.Mossadegh was placed under house arrest. The Iranianpeople began to see Mohammed Reza as a cowardlypuppet of the West and consequentially, he had lost anylegitimacy as leader. The democratically elected Parliamentwas dissolved, and an Iranian authoritarian state rose withthe nod given by the US.“The war of all against all.”Hobbes, Thomas. The Leviathan. (1651). http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/hobbes-lev13.html.(accessed May 3, 2007).Without security, a state would cease to exist. Even neutral Switzerland assigned guns to all males of age in every household.This is the figure given by the US Department of Defense (441.6 billion) which did not include the cost of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan,plus the cost of the “War on Terror” Operations in Iraq and Afghanistan (121.6 billion) given by the CRS Report for Congress. In 2006,the US had a GDP of 12.98 trillion.United States Department of Defense. Fiscal Year 2006 Budget. (2006). http://www.defenselink.mil/.(accessed May 3, 2007).Congressional Research Service. The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since9/11. (March 14, 2007). Washington, D.C: The Library of Congress, 2007.North Korea had chosen this option.Conventional wars, or wars involving one state against another state, is a focus here because the work is looking at state actors as they areinvolved in conflict with one another (i.e., Iran and the United States.)States have not necessarily conceptually relied on the concept of Total War, though.Whether this strategy regarding the usage of conventional weapons therein is a successful one or not is contentious. Robert Pape argues thatPunishment strategy using conventional weapons is not effective in his book, Bombing to Win: Air Power and Coercion in War. However,this does not detract from my argument which claims that this strategy is utilized and thought of as a winning strategy. Examples of thePunishment strategy being used can be found in the Bombing of Dresden, to the firebombing of Tokyo, to the various Operations in Vietnam(such as Rolling Thunder and Linebacker).This calculation of risk is almost identical to Robert Pape’s equation on the “value of resistance.”85

86The US also approved the Shah’s request to begin anuclear program. The Americans included the Iranianson their “Atoms for Peace” program and gave Iran anuclear reactor and a fair amount of Highly EnrichedUranium and plutonium. Beyond nuclear weapons, theUS was generous in arming the authoritarian Iranianleader. In thirty years, from 1950 to 1979, “US arms salesto Iran totaled approximately US $11.2 billion.” Duringthe same time period, the Shah had put forward a “WhiteRevolution” and strengthened symbolic political ties withthe United States. For every “democratic progression”the Shah made, the US envisioned a state that was “anisland of stability”, the Iranian people became more andmore outraged and disgusted with the “Westoxication,”and the Shah himself consolidated his own power andfinancial situation.The 1953 Coup was seen as a rallying point for Iraniansduring the 1979 Revolution. Ayotallah Ruhollah Khomainitook over the power that the religious vacuum of thedeath of Ali Shariati left, and Khomaini pushed forwardhis idea of the Wilayat al Faqi instead of the previouslymislabeled “Parliamentary Monarchy”. Before the IranianRevolution in 1979, the Shah was warned, “Majesty, afterthe fall of Mossadeq in 1953, hatred of the Americans ranso deep that it was easy for Khomeini to unleash an anti-American movement in response to the law.” The UShad also been accused of having a hand in the SAVAK’skilling of Mostapha Khomeini, the son of RuhollahKhomeini. Of course, the Shah’s cruel treatment againstpolitical protestors in 1963 and in the 1970s did not helphis image in the public. Protest after protest in the 1970s,following the 40-40 cycle, was treated unsuccessfully withan iron fist. The Shah was at such a loss, he called inthe American and British Embassies and asked directly,“What do I do?”The Revolution gained momentum quickly, and passedunder the American radar. Few American intelligenceagents spoke Farsi or Arabic, and even fewer wereembedded deeply enough in the Iranian grassroots toknow that Khomeini had been spreading anti-Monarchicaltaped lectures in Iran as he was in exile in Iraq and France.In November of 1978, the US Embassy cabled a warningto the Shah, telling him that there was something in theair. The intelligence had finally caught on to the cycleof protests, almost worrisome since the large scaleprotests had began several months earlier in January. ByDecember 1978, the protests in Tehran were numberinginto the millions.On 16 January 1979, the Shah left Iran and was “replaced”by Khomeni on the first of February. Khomeini beganto implement the Wilayat al Faqi, with himself as theFaqi. When, in late 1979, the Shah was admitted by theUS to receive cancer treatment, Iran had demanded theShah to be extradited and returned to Iran for a trial. TheAmericans refused, and then reminded the Iranians ofOperation AJAX. This thinly veiled threat did not set wellwith the Iranians. On 4 November 1979, members of thePape, Robert A. Bombing to Win: Air Power and Coercion in War. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996). p.16. Pape, however, doesnot believe that a punishment strategy is successful. Although I agree with his point of view, I am also aware that states still engage with thepunishment strategy, because states still view this strategy as successful.Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum. The Spirit of Hiroshima: An Introduction to the Atomic Bomb Tragedy.(Hiroshima: Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, 1999).The official yield of the “Little Boy” was 15 kilotons. A current 1.8 Megaton B83 Bomb has a 1.2 Megaton yield. It is to be noted that the“Little Boy” was not efficient, fissioning 1.38 percent of its material, and that the B83 is a variable-yield weapon.Cochran, Arkin, and Robert Norris, U.S. Nuclear Weapons Databook: U.S. Nuclear Warhead Production. (Canada:Harper Collins, 1987).Unacceptable damage in assured destruction was defined by Robert McNamara where ¼ to 1/3 of the population would die and that 2/3 ofthe country’s industry would be destroyed.Ball, Desmond. “Targeting for Strategic Deterrence.” Adelphi Papers. No. 185. (Summer 1983). InternationalInstitute for Strategic Studies, London.“ ‘Irreplaceable’ damage was defined as destruction of a definite portion of the population and economically important objects, which resultsin the enemy state ceasing to exist as such… In particular, one of these defined «irreplaceable» losses, worked out in the General Staff of theSoviet Armed Forces at the end of the 1970>s, suggested that by using nuclear weapons, 5% of the enemy>s population and 15% of itsindustrial potential would be destroyed.Miasnikov, E.V. The Future of Russia’s Strategic Nuclear Forces: Discussions and Arguments. (Moscow, Russia: Centerfor Arms Control, Energy, and Environmental Studies, 1995).

Muslim Student Followers of the Imam’s line stormed theUS embassy and captured 66 people, 63 of which werediplomats. The group was supported by Khomeini. TheAmerican responses were Operation Eagle Claw andOperation Credible Sport, both of which were failuresand therefore a factor in why Jimmy Carter lost the nextelection. After US President Ronald Reagan was sworn inon 20 January 1981, and the Algiers Accords were signedby both parties, the hostages were released. Of particularimportance, and listed as the first point of the Accords,was the non-intervention in Iranian Affairs: “The UnitedStates pledges that it is and from now on will be the policyof the United States not to intervene, directly or indirectly,politically or militarily, in Iran’s internal affairs.”Five years later, in 1986, members of the US governmentwere selling arms to Iran. Aside from this being illegalunder US law, it directly conflicts with the Algiers Accords.It may be argued that these were not individuals acting onbehalf of the government, but the fact remains that theywere US officials dealing with the Iranian government,and that a 20 million dollar transaction conveys the depthof the situation. The reason why the US was selling armsto Iran was to actually aid Iran during the 1980 – 1988Iran-Iraq War.During the course of the war, the United States had ultimatelydecided to support Iraq: “US interests would be adverselyaffected by Iran’s carrying the fight to Iraqi territory.” TheUS planned to assist Iraq in the war, as Reagan stated in aNational Security Directive, “Political consultations shouldbegin immediately followed by military consultations…inplanning measures necessary to deter or defend attacks on…critical oil productions…in the Persian Gulf.” Pursuant toa June 1981 National Security Directive,The United States actively supported the Iraqi war effort bysupplying the Iraqis with billions of dollars of credits, byproviding U.S. military intelligence and advice to the Iraqis,and by closely monitoring third country arms sales to Iraqto make sure that Iraq had the military weaponry required.Direct American military conventional arms sales assistanceto Iraq from 1983 to 1988 totaled 200 million US dollars.Adding insult to injury, toward the end of the war, the USshot down an Iranian commercial flight Airbus A300B2,killing 290 civilians. The US paid Iran 61.8 million dollars tocompensate for the Iranian lives lost, but did not pay for theairbus (30 million US dollars) nor apologized for its mistakeof killing the civilians or for being in Iranian waters. In1988, Iranian President Hashemi Rafsanjani made a covertpledge to “never allow Iran to be the victim again.”87Iran’s Shahab-3 MRBM has the ability to strike the following states: All of the GCC states, some Eastern European States, a few CentralAsian States, and the general Middle East…Including Israel.Iran’s Fajr missile, according to the Associated Press’s quote of General Hossein Salami, the air force chief of the Islamic RevolutionaryGuard Corps, has the capacity to hold multiple re-entry vehicles.Dareini, Ali Akbar. “Iran says it has Successfully Test-Fired a Missile Able to Avoid Radar.” Associated Press.(March 21, 2006).The Arrow began development in 1986. There has been development of an Arrow II, but more testing is required for this ABM.Linzer, Dafna. “Iran Is Judged 10 Years From Nuclear Bomb: U.S. Intelligence Review Contrasts WithAdministration Statements.” Washingtonpost.com. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2005/08/01/AR2005080101453_pf.html.(accessed May 5, 2007).Kahn, Herman. Thinking About the Unthinkable. (New York: Hudson Institute, Inc., 1984).Israel launched an air strike against Iraq’s Osirak nuclear facilities in 1981.Farr, Warner D. “The Third Temple’s Holy of Holies: Israel’s Nuclear Weapons.” The CounterproliferationPapers. (Alabama: USAF Counterproliferation Center, 1999).The US has threatened China with nuclear weapons in the 1950s and 1960s when it was the case that China was threatening Taiwan.The US first tested the Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile Polaris in 1960, thus extending its nuclear capabilities to form a nuclear triad.Often, the creation of an SLBM is what allows a state to have second-strike capacity.Iran has a population of 67, 477, 500. Tehran has a population of 11,931, 656 people. Further population data is also from the following source.Brinkoff, Thomas. City Population. http://www.citypopulation.de/Iran.html. (accessed May 5, 2007).“As for the so-called rouge states in the Middle East…if these states acquire nuclear weapons…neither America nor Israel could be blackmailed,because the blackmailer could not carry out the threat without suffering overwhelming retaliation.”Mearsheimer, John J. and Stephen Walt. “The Israel Lobby and US Foreign Policy.” London Review of Books.Vol.28, No. 6. (March 22, 2006).

88George W. Bush’s State of the Union Address on 29January 2002 labeled Iran an “Axis of Evil,” symbolicallycondemning the state internationally. Iran, alreadysuffering under a commercial and financial US embargo,was outraged, and Foreign Minister Kamal Kharraziconsidered the label as an attempt to interfere in Iranianinternal affairs.Where does this leave us today? Ahmadinejad, President ofIran, is busy bolstering Iranian security, the Iranian peopleremember their history with the US, and the Americanpeople are left wondering “Why do they hate us?” The USNational Security Strategy explains that terrorism springsfrom several different sources and reasons. One of thesereasons is “political alienation,” which states that terroristrecruitment can occur when a person is denied a voiceand denied recognition in politics. I wish to take this ona separate level: what about the political alienation of astate? Does that not promote subversive activities? TheUS promotes the freezing out of Iran due to its policies,and thus is denying Iran the political voice it deserves inthe international community and fostering hatred and fearwithin Iran against the US. Robert Baer, CIA officer from1976 – 1997, states that “where Iran is going depends onhow we treat them.” So far, the treatment has been farfrom first-rate to say the least, and leaves the historicallyaware mind that Iran has ample reason for not trustingthe United States.Power may be at the end of a gun, but sometimes it’salso at the end of the shadow or the image of a gun.Jean GenetIn the “war of all against all,” the state of nature to ThomasHobbes was not to be a state of permanent fighting, butinstead, is an existence where man is trying to secure thepeace. Therefore, war to Hobbes does not have to bethe actual act, but instead is echoed by Clausewitz’s waras being a “political instrument,” as a designation of thepotentialities and possibilities of war.Nuclear weapons proliferation is an unstoppableprogressive force. States will seek to fortify their securityand livelihood by enhancing their strategic militarycapabilities in any capacity. Yet “we need not fear thatthe spread of nuclear weapons will turn the world into amultipolar one.” States, large and small, will try to preparethemselves for confrontation…yet at the same time, seekpeace. If Iran has the ultimate goal of creating a nuclearweapon, it is for the reasons of deterrence, rather thanoffensive engagement.Iranian objectives and interests since 1979 include thefollowing requisitions for the US: To accept the legitimacyof the Islamic Revolution, to not interfere in Iran’s internalaffairs, and to deal with the Iranian regime on the basisof respect and equality. These objectives have not beenThe issue that these unite have been stationed domestically is certainly a separate issue that must be investigated.Küntzel, Matthias. A Child of the Revolution takes over: Ahmadinejad’s Demons. (April 14, 2006). http://www.israelpalestina.info/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=106.(accessed May 5, 2007).Macleod, Scott. “Exclusive Interview: Iran’s Foreign Policy Chief Talks with TIME”. Time.com . (February27, 2006). http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1167908,00.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).Islamic Republic of Iran. UN Mission. “Iranian President Ahmadinejad Writes to the American People.”Perspectives. (November 29, 2006). http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/article_3059.shtml. (accessed May 10, 2007).“September Eleven was a horrendous incident. The killing of innocents is deplorable and appalling in any part of the world. Our governmentimmediately declared its disgust with the perpetrators and offered its condolences to the bereaved and expressed its sympathies.”Letter to Mr. George W. Bush, President of the United States. Original.http://www.president.ir/farsi/ahmadinejad/cronicnews/1385/02/19/index-f.htm#b4. (accessed May 10, 2007).Letter to Mr. George W. Bush, President of the United States. Translated version.http://hosted.ap.org/specials/interactives/_documents/ahmadinejad0509.pdf. (accessed May 10, 2007).Khrushchev’s shoe-pounding incident during the Cold War is a historical example of this logic of the “rationality of irrationality.” If the USbelieved he was “crazy” enough as a leader, they would take the USSR’s resolve more seriously. Hobbes, 1651.

met. Iran has also requested that the US lift economicsanctions and that it unfreeze Iranian assets in the US,which the Iranians claim is in the amount of 10 millionUS dollars. Finally, a formal apology for Washington’spast deeds has been requested by Iran.Iran’s increase in the volume and in the material meansof its seeking resolutions for its requests for the US isdirectly in response to American strategic movementsin the Middle East. Iran notes that it is surrounded byUS troops in Iraq and Afghanistan and feels threatenedby the presence of the American military so close to itsborders. Although the US has limited resources, this hasnot stopped Bush from engaging in a “war of words”with Ahmadinejad. Ahmadinejad has written to Bush,asking for his cooperation in following international lawand human rights as a fellow monotheist. The BushAdministration has rejected the letter.In the letter, Ahmadinejad also states “All governmentshave a duty to protect the lives, property and good standingof their citizens.” The United States has not responded toIran. Therefore, Iran has had to seek other ways in whichits objectives may be fulfilled, some of which have beenviewed as irrational. Ahmadinejad’s stance on Israel andthe Holocaust has been widely received as threatening.Ahmadinejad, however, has stated that he is not against Jews.Rudolph Giuliani, leading candidate for the Republicannomination, states “It’s the worst nightmare since the ColdWar…The nuclear weapons in the hands of an irrationalperson, an irrational force. Ahmadinejad is irrational.”Yet I argue that Iran will not change its policy, and accordingto Thomas Schelling, renowned strategist, “Standing firmmay be irrational because it entails excessive costs, butif the state can convince the other side that it is in factirrational, the other will have no choice but to retreat andthe result will be that the state will gain its objective.”This is known as the “rationality of irrationality” in therhetorical war. Iran will continue its nuclear programand its strategic hyperbole in the hopes that the US willpositively respond to its 25-year-old objectives.If Iran creates a nuclear weapon, it is for the purposes ofdeterrence against a threatening Western hegemon and itsregional ally of Israel. If Iran does not create a nuclearweapon and instead continues with enriching uranium(thus being perceived as creating a nuclear weapon),its actions may change the US perspective on Iranianinterests and on how to accommodate those interests.Sun Tzu has the most sound advice on this: “Success inwarfare is gained by carefully accommodating ourselvesto the enemy’s purpose.”And what is a man without energy? Nothing - nothingat all.Mark TwainIran is second to Saudi Arabia and holds almost 10percent of the world’s oil reserves at 133 gigabarrels. Itwould seem highly eccentric to claim that Iran was in needof energy. In 1957, the Shah began the Iranian nuclearprogram with the help of the US because he saw a future89The Parliament was withering away, with mostly members of the Tudeh party (a Communist party) staying on. Because Mossadegh toleratedthe Communists, he was seen as a liability for the US during this Cold War time, and therefore had to be ousted.It is of Ramazani’s opinion that Iran’s Constitutional Revolution and the White Revolution both contributed to the Shah’s consolidation ofpower. His SAVAK (The National Organization for Information and Security), the secret police, were also increasingly empowered as theShah tried to control the masses of Iran. The SAVAK was formed and trained by the CIA and the Mosad.Ramazani, Rouhollah K. “Iran’s ‘White Revolution’: A Study in Political Development.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies.5 (1974). 124 – 139.The operation was stated as a coup-de-etat against Mossadegh, who had become quite power in the brief period of a few months.Wilber, Donald. “Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran: November 1952 – August 1953.” Clandestine ServiceHistory. Number 208. CIA Documents. (1969).The Shah allegedly admitted that he owed his “…throne to God, my people, my army - and to [Kermit Roosevelt].”Ebadi, Shirin. Iran Awakening: A Memoir of Revolution and Hope. (New York: Random House, 2006). Ch 1.The Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation. National Nuclear Security Administration.http://www.nnsa.doe.gov/na-20/frrsnf.shtml. (accessed May 9, 2007).US Department of State. “Atoms for Peace Agreement with Iran.” Department of State Bulletin 36. (April 15, 1957).Albright, David. “An Iranian Bomb?” The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Washington, DC. (January 1995).http://www.bullatomsci.org (accessed 10 May 2002).Albright, David and Mark Hibbs. “Spotlight Shifts to Iran.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. (March 1992). pp. 9-

90when Iran could not keep up with world consumption. Itturns out the Shah was correct.Iran’s quota of production is set by the Organization ofPetroleum Exporting Countries at 4 billion barrels perday, but has only been able to produce 3.7 billion. Dueto Iran not reinvesting in its oil sector, and subsidizing oilfor its high domestic demand, Iran has been “burning thecandle at both ends.” According to a National Academy ofSciences analysis, Iran’s revenues from oil could disappearby 2015.Ahmadinejad’s nuclear program may, in fact, address thesewoes. He is cognizant of his economic problems: On 25January 2007, he noted that it was the consumption ofpetroleum that was his largest economic problem. Iranhas had to import refined petroleum to keep up withdomestic demand. In order to address this he had takenmeasures in 1994 and created a deal with China. The deal,worth 200 billion US dollars, entails “Chinese investmentin Iran’s oil fields and the long-term sale of Iranian naturalgas to China [and an] annual export of some 10 milliontons of Iranian liquefied natural gas (LNG) for a 25-yearperiod.” China is second to Japan as the leading consumerof Iranian petroleum and petroleum products. In 2004,Japan shipped in 630,000 barrels of Iranian oil per day.Iranian domestic consumption, on the other hand, was1.5 million barrels a day in 2004. Iran cannot keep upwith this demand, nor can it continue to subsidize Iranianoil for its people.A chemin battu il ne croit point d’herb: One does notbelieve in grass on a trodden path.France’s city of Flamanville contains two nuclear reactorswhich power the entire regions of Normandy and Brittanywith electricity. France’s civilian nuclear energy programpowers 80 percent of its population with electricityusing only 53 reactors. The population of Normandyis at 3,260,000 inhabitants while Brittany has 4,271,000inhabitants. If Tehran’s population is almost 12 million,that would mean that Iran would need about 3 nuclearreactors to provide enough electricity to their capital. TheBushehr nuclear reactor would not only be able to powerthe entire region of Bushehr, but also the region of Fars,thus covering 10 percent of all of Iran.France’s success, as well as the success of other statesusing nuclear power, has lead Iran to have a glimpse of thebenefits of civilian nuclear energy. Iran’s huge domesticconsumption demands diversification in the energyproduction sphere. Nuclear power is an option, andIn September 1967, the US supplied 5.545kg of enriched uranium to Iran for fuel in a research reactor. Iran was also given 112g of plutonium.“US Supplied Nuclear material to Iran.” Digital National Security Archive. (29 January 29, 1980).http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com. (accessed May 10, 2007).“Iran Military Introduction” Globalsecurity.org.http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iran/intro.htm. (accessed May 9, 2007).The White Revolution consisted of the following reforms: Land Reforms, “nationalization of the forests, shares in State-owned factories tocompensate former landowners, profit-sharing by factory workers, reform of the electoral law, formation of the Literacy Corps, Health Corps,Extension Corps, the establishment of local courts, nationalization of underground water resources, ‘making anew the countryside’, and the‘Administrative Revolution’.”Ramazani, 124 – 139.Jimmy Carter, US President, 13 December 1977.“People and Events: The Iranian Hostage Crisis, November 1979 – January 1981”. Public Broadcasting Service.http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carter/peopleevents/e_hostage.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).Gharbzadegi, Jalal Al-Ahmed. Previously translated as “Weststruckness,” but the usage of “struck” in the previous translation does not mean“beaten”, but rather, “struck” in the sense of suddenly being afflicted by an illness. Thus, Westoxicaion is a more accurate translation that conveysthe feeling of the word.“…the religious camp is marching shoulder to shoulder with the communist in demonstrations against the regime…what brings them together ittheir common desire to destroy our national achievements.” Shah Mohammed Reza, to Ehsan Naraghi.Naraghi, Ehsan. From Palace to Prison: Inside the Iranian Revolution. Chicago: Iran R. Dee, 1991.p.8.Naraghi, p.104.In 1975, the Shah created the Rastakhiz (Resurgence) party and forced all political parties to become part of it.State of Jurisprudence, personal translation.Naraghi, p.9.

according to Article IV of the Nuclear Non-ProliferationTreaty of which Iran is a signatory, “All the Parties tothe Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right toparticipate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment,materials and scientific and technological informationfor the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.” This is echoedby Ahmadinejad’s claim that Iran has a “‘legal right’ topursue a nuclear energy program. The concept of nuclearenergy being a “right” has been contested by the UnitedStates. Ambassador Nicolas Burns, undersecretary ofstate for political affairs, has said, “Iran has no right tonuclear weapons…the government is irresponsible, andthere’s no international trust in the government of Iranthat would warrant a nuclear…program.”The Russian Federation seems to trust Iran. Russia, whichsupplies itself with 16% of its energy needs by nuclearpower, signed two deals with Iran. The first in 1995 was acontractual agreement, whereby Russia would essentiallysell Iran a nuclear power reactor for 8 million US dollars.The second was an protocol signed in 2005 betweenthe two countries stating that Russia would supply Iranwith nuclear fuel for 10 years once Bushehr becameoperational. This agreement will help cut down on costsfor Iran, which helps the state as its economic situationworsens each year.A study made in March 2004 by the Royal Academy ofEngineers has stated that “the cost of power from anuclear plant was very close to the cost of power froma gas-fired plant, about 10-30 percent cheaper than coal(depending on the coal technology used) and about a thirdof the cost of renewables.” Therefore, it is necessaryfor Iran to diversify, and it is furthermore economicallysound to invest in nuclear power. Creating nuclear powerfor civilian use is a logical decision made by the Iraniangovernment, after all.Small opportunities are often the beginning of greatenterprises.DemosthenesThe uranium market is difficult to enter. In the early1970s, there was a Uranium Cartel that existed for theeyears that made enough money that it would “make anOPEC Minister jealous: during those three years, world‘yellowcake’ prices zoomed from less than $6 per Ib. toabout $42, where they have since remained.” Today,selling uranium to other states has usually been on abilateral basis, but there are regional markets according tocontinental location.Demand for uranium is based on the energy consumptionmarket, which has been exploding over time. Between1980 to 2004, the growth rate of energy demand rose 2percent each year. With the political instability of oil-91Hundreds of Iranians were slaughtered at these protests by the Shah’s SAVAK, or secret police. Khomeini was an organizer and participant inthe 19636 protest, which was against social and economic reforms and was a response to the Shah’s obviously staged referendum.In Iranian culture and religion, after someone dies (here, as in a protest), there is a 40 day period of mourning. After that time, there is oftenvengeful action sought after the one who began the “injustice.” The protests, the deaths, the mourning, and the revenge-protests became cyclical andoccurred for years.Lecture by William B. Quandt, senior advisor to US President Jimmy Carter under Zbigniew Brzezinski (theUnited States National Security Advisor). Comparative Politics of the Middle East . The University of Virginia. (October 21, 2003).The chants of “Khomeini for King” resounded as Ruhollah Khomeini descended from his plane.Foucault, Michel. “What are the Iranians Dreaming about?” Excerpt from Afary, Janet and Kevin B.Anderson. Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism. (Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 2005). http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/007863.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).The Juris, or the Jurisprudent. Khomeini was the “supreme leader.”Holloway, James. The Holloway Report. Joint Chiefs of Staff. (August 23, 1980).The Algiers Accords. General Principles, Point I.This went against the Arms Export Control Act.US Declassified document from the National Security Archive. Letter from Oliver North to Adolfo Calero.Kornbluh, Peter and Malcolm Byrne, Eds. The Iran-Contra Scandal: The Declassified History. (Washington, DC.: W. W. Norton and Co., 1993).Special Intelligence Estimate. Implications of Iran’s Victory over Iraq. Directorate of Intelligence. Approved for Release June 2001. p.14.

92rich states, the decrease of natural resources over time,and expensive renewable energy resources, a move intothe uranium market is arguably profitable. Thirty-eightstates are currently using civilian nuclear energy, or haveplans to do so. The percentage of the world land-wiseusing nuclear energy with nuclear reactors located insidetheir states draws a more compelling argument: fortyninepercent of the earth works with civilian nuclearenergy, covering 70.6 percent of the world’s population.Moreover, of those thirty-eight states, seven are in theG8. These states can certainly afford to buy uranium,and are the largest consumers of energy on earth: Thesestates consume 79.1 percent of the world’s energy.The Uranium Market buys and sells uranium at differentstages of enrichment: from Low-Enriched Uranium(LEU), three to five percent of which is composed of theUranium-235 isotope and useable in a light-water reactor,to Highly-Enriched Uranium (HEU), ninety-four percentof which is composed of U-235. HEU may be producedand then blended with LEU to sell as nuclear reactor fuel.There is certainly precedent of this occurring, with the“Megatons to Megawatts” deal signed between the USand Russia in 1993. The deal called for Russia to downblend its HEU into LEU and sell the LEU to the US. “Asof September 21, 2005, 250 metric tons of weapons gradeHEU from the former Soviet Union has been recycled.”This deal is worth hundreds of millions of dollars.Iran only has to peer over the border to see that itsneighbor has latched on to a lucrative deal. A deal likethat would most certainly bolster Iran’s economy andallow their diversification project success. The uraniummarket would also explain why Iran is enriching itsuranium to HEU: not to create weapons, but to allow acommodity so valuable to be bought as one lump andsold in pieces over time. Iran has the uranium already.The value in such a project would give Iran an immediatefinancial boost and in Iran’s case, the sooner it gets out ofeconomical disaster, the better.The discovery of nuclear reactions need not bringabout the destruction of mankind any more than thediscovery of matchesAlbert EinsteinProliferation will occur. Clandestine projects will beginand have begun in states both large and small, rougeand otherwise. India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israelall began their programs under the international radar.Pakistan received assistance from China and Israel fromBritain but all states collectively remained unaware ofthese four states’ program until after a test was carried out.Each state has listed reasons as to why nuclear weaponswere developed: India and Pakistan developed weaponsas a safety precaution against one another, North Koreawanted security against Western regime change, and Israelwanted a secure option against Arab states should there beanother military threat to Israel’s existence. All of theseReagan, Ronald. National Security Directive 114. The White House. (November 26, 1983). Declassified July 1999.Former National Security Council Howard Teicher drafted the 1981 National Security Directive. These statements were made in a swornaffidavit for a 1995 US District Court case in Florida. Teicher, Howard. Affidavit, 1995 US District Court case in Florida.http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf. (accessed May 10, 2007).“Arms Transfers to Iraq, 1970 – 2004.” Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.http://www.sipri.org/contents/armstrad/atirq_data.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).Secretary of State Richard S. Williamson, International Organizational Affairs, on a July 3rd, 1988 Nightline interview with Ted Koppel.Williamson, Richard S. Nightline. (July 3, 1988). http://homepage.ntlworld.com/jksonc/docs/ir655-nightline-19920701.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).“Iranian Progress Towards Developing Nuclear Weapons”. MILNET. (July 28, 2004).http://www.milnet.com/Iranian-Nuclear-Chronology.htm. (accessed May 10, 2007).The Iran-Libya Sanctions Act. The CRS Report for Congress.http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/23591.pdf. (accessed May 10, 2007).“Iran Rejects ‘Axis of Evil’ Barb.” CNN.com. (January 30, 2002).http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/01/30/iran.bush/index.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).“The National Security Strategy of the United States of America.” The White House. Washington D.C.,March 2006. http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2006/nss2006.pdf. (accessed May 13, 2007).

states proliferated for defense and security purposes, asmay Iran.I will not be as optimistic as Kenneth Waltz and claim thatproliferation is desirable. I will state, however, a resoundingconclusion by John J. Mearsheimer: “Everything dependson how proliferation is managed.” Mearsheimer was usingthis in reference to proliferation in Europe, but I believethat it is applicable all over the world. And, according toWaltz, “The slow spread of nuclear weapons gives statestime to learn to live with them, to appreciate their virtues,and to understand the limits they place on behavior.”Thus, it is the management of the slow spread of nuclearweapons that the US must gear its policy toward, ratherthan the explosive and offensive policy of military threats,confrontation, and preemptive strikes.Current US policy on Iran is actually based on a thirdparty, Israel. In March of 2006, US President George W.Bush delivered a speech in Cleveland, saying: “The threatfrom Iran is, of course, their stated objective to destroyour strong ally Israel. That’s a threat, a serious threat…I’ll make it clear again, that we will use military might toprotect our ally Israel.” It is quite tempting at this pointto follow Mearsheimer once more, and state that basingAmerican foreign policy on Israeli foreign policy is not in“our national interest,” but I will not use that argument.Instead, I would like to point out the interests of theUnited States as mentioned throughout the NationalSecurity Strategy:1. Security (Protecting the US homeland)2. Economic Prosperity3. Humanitarian (The prosperity of others)4. Political and Ideological (Democracies are good forthe US)Another fundamental interest of the US is maintainingthe access to Persian Gulf Oil. Access to these oil sourcesaffect other interests such as security and economicprosperity, and has been laid out in National SecurityDirective-63. Also known as the Carter Doctrine, thisdirective states “An attempt to by any outside force to gaincontrol of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as anassault on the vital interests of the United States. It willbe repelled by the use of any means necessary, includingmilitary force.” Section V of the NSS is entitled, “PreventOur Enemies from Threatening Us, Our Allies, and OurFriends with Weapons of Mass Destruction.” The firstpoint under the “challenges” section mentions Iran andits refusal to comply to the NPT. Iran has been labeledas an enemy. As it has been determined that Israel is anally and that most Persian Gulf states with oil may becategorized as allies, friends, or under US control, the USmust seek to make sure that its vital interests are alignedand integrated into a single policy. Currently, the US hasnot aligned its interests.In the 2006 version of the NSS, Iran is labeled as a statewhere people live under “tyranny…that must not betolerated” and the US promises to take “vocal and visiblesteps” to ending tyranny, such as via sanctions and covert93Baer, Robert. Frontline. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/tehran/interviews/baer.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).Hobbes, 1651.Clausewitz, Carl Von. On War. (New York: Everyman’s Library, 1993).“…whatever number of things may introduce themselves which are not actually fighting, still is always implied in the conception of war.”Clausewitz, 1993.Iran had an agreement with Libya and Syria in 1985 to develop nuclear weapons to counter Israel’s nuclear threat.Peled, Mati. Worldwide Report (January 9, 1986). pp. 61-63.“A state becomes a great power not by military or economic capability alone but by combining political, social, economic, military, and geographicassets in more effective ways than other states can.”Waltz, Kenneth. “The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May be Better.” Adelphi Papers. No. 171. (London: International Institute forStrategic Studies, 1981).Amuzegar, Jahangir. “Iran’s Crumbling Revolution.” Foreign Affairs. New York. Vol.82, Iss. 1. (Jan/Feb 2003). pg. 1.Amuzegar, pg. 1.As of 2003, 5 Army divisions (163,000 troops) were in Iraq, I division of Marines, 5 fighter-wing equivalents (350)m and 6 navy carriers.This force structure had been based on Powell’s force structure created for Iraq 1990. 300,000 troops are available for deployment, of which233,00 are deployed. 133,000 are in Iraq. 20,000 Troops are in Afghanistan, but have aid from NATO forces with 6,500 troops.

94indigenous training. Specifically, the US documents:As important as are these nuclear issues, the United Stateshas broader concerns regarding Iran. The Iranian regimesponsors terrorism; threatens Israel; seeks to thwartMiddle East peace; disrupts democracy in Iraq; and deniesthe aspirations of its people for freedom. The nuclearissue and our other concerns can ultimately be resolvedonly if the Iranian regime makes the strategic decisionto change these policies, open up its political system, andafford freedom to its people. This is the ultimate goalof U.S. policy. In the interim, we will continue to take allnecessary measures to protect our national and economicsecurity against the adverse effects of their bad conduct.The words “all necessary measures” indicate that “all optionsare on the table,” as stated by Bush in a 2005 speech, whichmeans that the nuclear option is a possible tool that may beused. This strategy is one of escalation. The US has beenon the offense against Iran. Iran has also been aggressivein kind. When two states are using tactics that place eachas the attacker of the other, what we are left with is a classicgame of chicken. In brinkmanship, if neither side backsdown, both will clash, and both will be damaged.The US has already been exploring surgical strikesagainst Iran in Natanz and Isfahan. The US does notneed a nuclear weapon to take out another nuke. Whatmust be remembered at this point is if a nuclear stationis bombed, it may cause an effect much like Chernobyl.The 1986 Chernobyl meltdown affected an area of 4,000square kilometers, contaminating them with an unsafelevel of radiation. If we assume only half that area ofNatanz would be destroyed, Israel would still suffer fromradioactive fallout. Israel is only 1609.3 kilometers awayfrom Natanz (Tehran is 300 kilometers away). The Gulfstates would also be negatively affected. If the US useda “limited strike, they would wipe out both of their vitalinterests (Israel and the Persian Gulf oil) in one strike.A further challenge for the US is that the Natanz site is“hardened with a roof of several meters of reinforcedconcrete and buried under a layer of earth some 75 feetdeep,” and the current bunker busters have not beenproven to be effective as surgical strikes at this depth. Yetassuming that the US was able to, it would devastate notonly that city, but also would adversely affect US allies foryears.Moderation in all thingsPublius Terentius AferVital interests of a state represent the few items that,if infringed upon, would cause a state to drasticallyretaliate. These items are directly connected to a state’snational interests and often perceived as a part of thatstate’s national security, whether in fact or not. While it isunderstandable, e scripta, that the US react so aggressivelyagainst Iran’s rhetorical threats against Israel, it is equallypuzzling that that the US would choose to respond byLecture by Robert Pape. Strategy. The University of Chicago. April 2005.Letter to Mr. George W. Bush, President of the United States.Letter to Mr. George W. Bush, President of the United States.Ahmadinejad – Why So Sensitive About Israel?” CNN.com. (September 21, 2006).http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/09/21/ahmadinejad.intv/index.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).Ahmadinejad has said at a UN Conference “No, I am not anti-Jew. I respect them very much. We love everyone in the world - Jews, Christians,Muslims, non-Muslims, non-Jews, non-Christians... We are against occupation, aggression, killings and displacing people - otherwise we have noproblem with ordinary people.” He has a problem with the “occupying regime.”“Iranian Leader not Anti-Semite.” BBC.com. (September 21, 2006).http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5368458.stm. (accessed May 10, 2007).“Republican Presidential Hopefuls Agree on Iraq.” Gulf Times. (May 5, 2007). http://www.gulftimes.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=147454&version=1&template_id=43&parent_id=19.(accessed May 10, 2007).Jervis, Robert. The Meaning of Nuclear Revolution. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989).Schelling, Thomas C. Arms and Influence. (New Havan: Yale University Press, 1966).“I do believe that if the government of the United States changes its behavior, the conditions will be changed. Then a dialogue could take place.”Ahmadinejad in an interview with TIME magazine.“People who Mattered: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.” TIME.com. (December 12, 2006).http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1570714,00.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).Tzu, Sun. The Art of War. (N. Chelmsford, MA: Dover Publications, 2002).

asserting an endangerment of its own vital interest inturn via the “surgical strike”. This dangerous game ofbrinkmanship, once again harkening back to Cold Warescalation tactics, may lead to an outcome of devastatingconsequences for the US, Iran, and the entire MiddleEast.The first puzzle the US must solve is the reason behindIran’s development of highly enriched uranium. Mostpoliticians have not addressed the complexity of thedevelopment, assuming that the creation of a nuclearweapon is, prima facie, Iran’s initial goal, from which, Iranwishes to proceed to terrorize the region. I have arguedthat these assumptions are too superficial, and that Iranhas three reasons why it is developing highly enricheduranium: to enter into the uranium market in order toimprove its economy, to create an economically soundsource of energy for its country, and to create a nuclearweapon for reasons of deterrence.The next step involves both the US and Iran. TheUS should realize that Iran has eight requests that aresymbolically important to Iran that may be easily answeredand resolved. Iran, in turn, should realize that it is apowerful state in the Middle East and that it should notabuse that power. The Islamic Republic of Iran shouldallow in weapons inspectors of its choosing in order tomake sure the safety standards of its nuclear program areup to par.Movement towards this next step may require Russia,Europe, and / or China, but I believe that regionalmediators would also benefit both states. The US wouldhave states there that are allies with the America, andIran would be able to create regional partnerships thatmay create a path towards a benign regional hegemony.Of particular importance may be Oman, which has astrong relationship with Iran. This particular aspect ofdiplomacy and policy-making requires more research, butit should be considered as a possibility when each statetakes steps towards resolution.Reducing the complexity of the situation to simple blackand white interpretations will neither create successfuldiplomacy nor strong policy. Each side must makeconcessions in order to ensure that the future of theregion is stable, an interest that both sides share. Ifpositive steps are made in creating stability, the future ofthe entire world may be safe.Iran Profile – Nuclear Chronology 1957 – 1985. Nuclear Threat Initiative.http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/1825_1826.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).A loss of 10 to 11 billion per year, huge considering that Iran earns 50 billion per year in oil exports, which composes 80 % of their state revenue.“If we look at that shortfall, and failure to rectify leaks in their refineries, that adds up to a loss of about $10 billion to $11 billion a year,”Roger Stern, an economic geographer at Johns Hopkins University said. “That is a picture of an industry in collapse.”“Report: Iran oil profits could dry up by 2015.” Associated Press. (December 25, 2006).http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/12/25/iran.oil.ap/index.html. (accessed January 1, 2007).“Iran – US Expert Predicts Oil-Export Crisis Within a Decade.” Radio-Free Europe. Radio Liberty. (January 12, 2007). http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/01/DC93E2C3-0923-4575-84E9-808C49EEB513.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).“Iran Trying to Prevent another UN resolution.” Tehran Times. (January 25, 2007).“Country Analysis Briefs: Iran.” Energy Information Administration. (August 2006).http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Iran/Full.html. (accessed May 10, 2007).“Iran Oil”. GlobalSecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iran/oil.htm. (accessed May 10, 2007).“Global Trade Information Services, Inc.”, Global Trade Atlas. (July 2006).CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook. (accessed May 11, 2007).Beardsley, Eleanor. “France Presses Ahead with Nuclear Power.” NPR.com. (May 1, 2006).http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5369610. (accessed May 11, 2007).January 2006 estimate.January 2005 estimate.Brinkoff.With about 5 million people in the combined regions, and an area of 145,351 square kilometers, and realizing that Iran is about 1,648,195 squarekilometers in area, this figures to 10% of the area of Iran being energy-satisfied with one reactor (personal calculation, based off the following:).Beardsley.Brinkoff.95

96It is important to note that Russia has huge reserves of oil and natural gas, yet still utilizes nuclear power.“The Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons.” UN.org. (July 1, 1968).http://www.un.org/events/npt2005/npttreaty.html. (accessed May 11, 2007).“Iran is Resolved to Pursue Nuclear Program.” CNN.com. (September 18, 2005).http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/09/17/iran.president/index.html. (accessed May 11, 2007).India’s Prime Minister in 1998, Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee, stated in a speech to his Parliament at the time, “It is India’s due, the right of onesixthof humankind.”“Paper laid on the table of the House on Evolution of India’s Nuclear Policy.” Embassy of India, Washington,D.C. (May 27, 1998). http://www.indianembassy.org/pic/nuclearpolicy.htm. (accessed May 13, 2007).“Iran: US Official says Tehran has ‘No Right to Nuclear Weapons’.” Radio Free Europe. Radio Liberty. (May3, 2007). http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/05/17f7d0f3-dc8d-4de7-af3f-90137ec55406.html. (accessed May 11, 2007).Despite Security Council Resolutions 1696 and 1737 which call for sanctions against Iran and the non-transfer of nuclear technology respectively,Russia has pressed forward with its deals.“Nuclear Power in Russia.” World Nuclear Association. (May 2007). http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/inf45.html.(accessed May 11, 2007).“Russia: Nuclear Exports to Iran: Reactors.”The Royal Academy of Engineers. “The Costs of Generating Electricity.” London: The Royal Academy of London, March 2004. http://www.raeng.org.uk/news/publications/list/reports/Cost_of_Generating_Electricity.pdf. (accessed May 11, 2007).Members were Canada, France, Britain, Australia, and South Africa.The Uranium Cartel’s Fallout. TIME. (November 21, 1977).http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,915744,00.html. (accessed May 11, 2007).There is at least one formal exchange forum set up for this type of sale:New York, NY, April 16, 2007 — The New York Mercantile Exchange, Inc., a subsidiary of NYMEX Holdings, Inc. (NYSE:NMX),the world’s largest physical commodity exchange, today signed a 10–year agreement with the Ux Consulting Company, LLC (UxC), the globaluranium pricing index and information leader, to introduce on and off-exchange traded uranium futures products on the CME Globex® andNYMEX ClearPort® electronic platforms on May 6 for trade date May 7.“News Release.” New York Mercantile Exchange, Inc. (2007).http://nymex.com/press_releas.aspx?id=pr20070416a. (accessed May 11, 2007).“World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups (Quadrillion Btu),1980-2004 (XLS).” Energy Information Administration. (July 31, 2006).http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xls. (accessed May 11, 2007).Personal calculations based off of statistical information from the CIA World Factbook.Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the USA. Italy does not have a civilian nuclear energy program. Membersof the G8 represent 65% of the world’s economy. See Table 1 at the end.United Nations Development Program. UN.org. http://www.undp.org/. (accessed May 11, 2007).World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups (Quadrillion Btu), 1980-2004 (XLS).“‘Megatons to Megawatts’: The U.S.-Russia Highly Enriched Uranium Agreement.” Center for DefenseInformation. (May 14, 2004). http://www.cdi.org/program/document.cfm?documentid=2210&programID=32&from_page=../friendlyversion/printversion.cfm. (accessed May 11, 2007).This is equivalent to eliminating 10,000 nuclear warheads, and is also equivalent to the energy of one major mine.“Uranium Markets.” Cameco. (April 9, 2007). http://www.cameco.com/uranium_101/markets/. (accessed May 11, 2007).Reza Amrollahi, the head of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran, announces that huge uranium deposits have been discovered in fourlocations in Iran.“Discovery of Uranium,” BBC Summary of World Broadcasts. (December 21, 1981). http://www.lexis-nexis.com. (accessed May 11,2007).Iran discovers “high-quality uranium” in the Saghand region of the Yazd province after “several years of exploratory work.” Approximately5,000 tons of uranium are said to be located at the site.Nuclear News, March 1985, pp. 117-118.

Waltz.Mearsheimer, John J. “Why We Will Soon Miss the Cold War.” The Atlantic Monthly. (August 1990).Volume 266, No. 2; pages 35-50.Waltz.Please pardon the pun.Baker, Peter, Dafna Linzer, and Thomas E. Ricks. “U.S. Is Studying Military Strike Options on Iran: Any Mix of Tact, Threats AlarmsCritics.” Washington Post. (April 9, 2006). Page A01.http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/08/AR2006040801082.html.(accessed May 13, 2007.)Mearsheimer, John J. and Stephen Walt.“The National Security Strategy of the United States of America.”Presidential Directive / National Security Directive – 63. The White House, Washington D.C. (January 15, 1981).http://jimmycarterlibrary.org/documents/pd63.pdf. (accessed May 13, 2007).“The National Security Strategy of the United States of America.”. p.19.This refers to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia (allies), Qatar, and the UAE (friends), and Iraq (under control).“The National Security Strategy of the United States of America.” p.3.“Tyrannical regimes such as Iran…that oppress at home and sponsor terrorism abroad…”“The National Security Strategy of the United States of America.” p.38.“The National Security Strategy of the United States of America.” p.6.“The National Security Strategy of the United States of America.” p.20.Associated Press. “Bush: ‘All options are on the table’ regarding Iran’s nuclear aspirations.” USAToday.com. 13 August 2005. http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2005-08-13-bush-irannuclear_x.htm.(accessed May 14, 2007).Tactically, Bush also believes in escalation. He has increased troops in Iraq in order to win the post-war situation.Bush, George W. “The President’s Address to the Nation.” The White House, Washington D.C. (January 2007).http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/01/20070110-7.html. (accessed May 14, 2007).Baker, Peter, Dafna Linzer, and Thomas E. Ricks.Caesium-137 to levels greater than 555 kBq/m².“The Chernobyl Project.” The International Atomic Energy Agency. IAEA.org. (October 1989).http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub885e_web.pdf. (accessed May 14, 2007).Natanz is thought to have more than 3,000 centrifuges.Sagan, Scott D. “How to Keep the Bomb from Iran.” Foreign Affairs. (September / October 2006).“Weapons of Mass Destruction: Nantz.” Global Security.http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/iran/natanz.htm. (accessed May 14, 2007).The continuing existence of which is a US vital interest. National Security Strategy of the United States.Such as the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis / Caribbean Crisis / October Crisis.These requests, as mentioned before, consist of the following: To accept the legitimacy of the Islamic Revolution, to not interfere in Iran’s internalaffairs, to deal with the Iranian regime on the basis of respect and equality, to lift economic sanctions, to unfreeze Iranian assets in the US, to payfor Airbus A300B2, and to apologize for its past deeds.If Iran chooses the weapons inspectors, there will be less of a reason for Iran to believe that the inspectors are spies.One issue that may have to be addressed is that Iran a history of terrible earthquakes, the most recent one being in Bam in 2003. These nuclearsites must be earthquake-proof.Such as certain GCC states.All land areas and population figures are from the following unless cited otherwise: CIA World Factbook.Nuclear Energy consumption (percentage of world consumption) figures are from:Statistical Review 2006. British Petroleum. http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2006/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/pdf/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_2006.pdf. (accessed May 11, 2007).Not from CIA World Factbook, general knowledge.97

Table 1: Nuclear Powered States and Energy Consumption98STATELand AreaPopulationEnergy Consumption(in square kilometers) (July 2007 Estimates)(Percent of World Consumption)USA 9,161,923 301,139,947 24.6France 640,053 63,713,926 2.4Japan 374,744 127,433,494 6.4Russia 16,995,800 141,377,752 3.4UK 241,590 60,776,238 2.2South Korea 98,190 49,044,790 2.7Canada 9,093,507 33,390,141 2.6Germany 349,223 82,400,996 3.2India 2,973,190 1,129,866,154 3.0Ukraine 603,700 46,299,862 0.4Sweden 410,934 9,031,088 0.4China and Taiwan 9,326,410 1,321,851,888 10.0Spain 499,542 40,448,191 2.1Belgium 30,278 10,392,226 1.0Czech Republic 77,276 10,228,744 0.3Slovakia 48,800 5,447,502 0.1Switzerland 39,770 7,554,661 0.3Bulgaria 110,550 7,322,858 0.1Finland 304,473 5,238,460 0.3Hungary 92,340 9,956,108 0.2Brazil 8,456,510 190,010,647 2.2South Africa 1,219,912 43,997,828 0.6Mexico 1,923,040 108,700,891 2.3Argentina 2,736,690 40,301,927 0.5Pakistan 778,720 164,741,924 0.5Lithuania 65,303 3,575,439 0.1Slovenia 20,151 2,009,245 No informationRomania 230,340 22,276,056 0.3Netherlands 33,883 16,570,613 1.3Armenia 28,400 2,971,650 No informationIran 1,636,000 65,397,521 2.0North Korea 120,410 23,301,725 No informationTurkey 770,760 71,158,647 0.8Indonesia 1,826,440 234,693,997 1.4Vietnam 325,360 85,262,356 No informationEgypt 995,450 80,335,036 0.8Israel 20,330 6,426,679 No informationPoland 304,465 38,518,241 0.6Total 72,964,457 4,663,165,448 79.1World total 148,940,000 6,602,224,175 100Percentage of World 49 % 70.6 % 79.1 %

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104My SCORE, OurMATCH: CommunityPartnerships ForLearning And GrowthChristine and Christopher PiconeExecutive summaryMost people live as part of a community. Therefore,individual actions and inactions not only affect the personconcerned but also, to varying degrees, others who sharethe same community.As far as possible, both individual and community lifeshould be meaningful and fulfilling. The extent to whichindividuals and communities grow is dependent upon amultitude of internal and external dynamic variables.Learning is a major determinant of individual andcommunity growth; however, learning is, in turn,dependent on ability, attitude and access. Learning,especially in this time of constant change, is a lifelongprocess and is not just for personal but also for communitybenefit. Therefore, learning should not be seen as solelyan individual responsibility.“My SCORE Our MATCH” is a model to promote andfacilitate individual and community lifelong learning andgrowth. It includes• a record of individual progress towards “My Skills andCaring Ongoing Review and Enrichment”, and alsoinvolves• linkage with a growth partner, resulting in “Our MutualAssistance Towards Community Harmony”.My SCORE Our MATCH involves an individualcommitment towards progress in learning and growthacross nominated dimensions of life, over a specifiedtimeframe. A growth partner is then appointed to linkup with the individual for the purpose of facilitatingmutual support and encouragement in the learning andgrowth processes. As a result, the benefits are both to theindividual and the community.The nominated targets for each individual in lifelonglearning and growth become the benchmarks for measuringprogress at selected intervals and are documented, as amotivational prompt towards achievement.IntroductionLifestyles are very much different now compared to evenjust one generation ago. In this respect, Philip Candy(2002) identified a number of ‘dominant changes that areimpacting on our lives and bringing about a requirementfor continuing learning and adaptation’. (p. 3). Some ofthese changes include:• ‘the pervasive effects of new technologies• globalisation• changing patterns of work• alterations in family and community relations• explosion of available information’. (pp. 3-4).The saying “There are only two certainties in life: deathand taxes” might be amended now to add “continuingchange”. In this regard, there is constant change in almostevery aspect of life including both work and non workdimensions. People have the choice of being reactiveor proactive to such changes. A reactive approach willalmost always involve catch up and often results in missedopportunities especially relating to jobs and careers. Aproactive approach, on the other hand, prepares theindividual to take advantage of new opportunities notjust in connection with employment but also in other lifedimensions such as personal finance, health and fitness.Lifelong learning and growthWhether individuals are reactive or proactive, the realityfor all is that a process of lifelong learning and growth isnow essential in order to adjust to, or preferably anticipate,change in all aspects of life. Indeed a sobering warninghas been made that ‘Those who are not able to anticipateand adapt to change- to continue learning throughouttheir lives- are likely to become increasingly marginalizedin economic and social life’. (Bryce et al n.d., p. 6)In referring to lifelong learning, the OECD asserts thatLifelong learning is far broader than the provision ofsecond-chance education and training for adults. It isbased on the view that everyone should be able, motivated,and actively encouraged to learn throughout their life.This view of learning embraces individual and socialdevelopment of all kinds and in all settings: formally,in schools, vocational, tertiary and adult educationinstitutions; and non-formally, at home, at work and inthe community. (Bryce et al n.d., p. 6)Lifelong learning then, according to the OECD, is aboutlearning not just for vocational purposes but also forgeneral personal, family and community growth. Learning

for individual growth, such as formal qualifications, canbe undertaken through a variety of means includingonline programs from home, alone. However, learningfor family and social development cannot meaningfullybe undertaken in isolation. Accordingly, variouscommunities have facilitated networks and structures inorder to promote, and provide the opportunity for, sharedlearning and growth activities.Learning communitiesSouth Australia is one example of a society that iscommitted to foster learning communities. Theirmotivation is thatThrough the application of lifelong learning in oursociety and through learning communities we’ll havemore caring citizenship, an improved quality of life,more active participation in our society, culturalrichness, better rights of passage and a wider range ofpeople will feel valued and be included in the life ofour state. (Ralph 2000)Tasmania is another State that ‘has developedcomprehensive strategies to progress lifelong learning forall aligned with overall planning for the development ofthe State’. (Kearns 2004, p. 36). To this end, communityleaders developed “Tasmania Together” which provides a‘vision for the development of the State with 24 goals and212 benchmarks to assess progress’. (Kearns 2004, p. 36).Communities such as the above, where people learn andgrow together, stand to collectively benefit not only interms of social cohesion but also economic growth, asmembers identify and work towards opportunities forshared success. In this respect,there is now greater recognition of the wider benefitsof learning which can be achieved in a range of sectorssuch as health, welfare, community building, regionaldevelopment, cultural development, and the overallquality of life’. (Kearns 2004, p. 4)Community learning & growth requires support &inclusionDespite the significant wider social and economic benefitsassociated with lifelong learning and growth, learningcommunities do not happen without considerable effort,coordination and cooperation at every level. In this respect,a society will not reach a status of learning community• if it does not address barriers to learning• if it does not undertake extensive and focused researchand development• if it is not learner driven rather than institutionaldriven• if it is not socially just and socially inclusive. (Ralph 2000)One of the challenges for learning communities is toachieve active participation by those who are at risk ofmarginalization. Lifelong learning and indeed socialparticipation generally are relatively easy for thosecommunity members who are comfortable in theirpersonal and professional circumstances. However, thereare many others within the same community who are notas fortunate through such causes as redundancy, illiteracy,shyness and the like. As an ideal, support mechanismsshould be available, especially in the early stages, toprovide the opportunity for social inclusion, and activeinvolvement, in community learning and growth projects.Types of lifelong learning and growthThe European Community defined three types of lifelonglearning:• Formal learning…typically provided by an educationor training institution, structured and leading tocertification.• Non-formal learning…not provided by an educationor training institution and typically does not lead tocertification. It is, however, structured.• Informal learning…resulting from daily life activitiesrelated to work, family or leisure. It is not structuredand typically does not lead to certification. (Colley,Hodkinson & Malcolm 2002)Formal learning, resulting in a full qualification, is usuallyassociated with preparation for entry into a paid careerpath. Ongoing formal learning is then undertaken inorder to upgrade or diversify skills to maintain andenhance employability.Non-formal learning is typically associated with in-housetraining courses undertaken by organizations to providespecific knowledge and skills associated with policiesand practices within the organization. The organizationmay offer some form of participatory acknowledgement;however, this is often specifically for internal benefit andadvancement rather than for external recognition.Informal learning can occur anywhere and may beintentional or unintentional. For instance, “hanging out”105

106with a mate while he does mechanical work on his carprovides the opportunity for incidental learning in a purelysocial setting. Indeed, how many people (including theauthors) wish they had paid more attention within suchunintentional learning and growth opportunities?The lifelong learning ladderFor maximum benefits to the individual and thecommunity, lifelong learning requires more than passengerseat participation. Specifically, ‘A lifelong learning focusis not just about increasing access to information andinformation services, but the depth of learning which suchactivity promotes’. (Bryce et al n.d., p. 14). In this respect,Longworth (cited in Bryce et al n.d., p. 14) described ‘TheLearning Ladder’ where the learner utilizes questioningand reasoning to process data and information towardsthe gaining of insight and wisdom.Most people are now faced with information overload.Therefore, an important prerequisite of the learning andgrowth process is the ability to decipher what informationand learning is most useful for the individual concerned.Otherwise, time can be unnecessarily wasted on thebottom rung of the learning ladder.Lifelong learning contribution towards social capitalAligned with the filtering process, there should ideally bethe nurturing of awareness within individuals of linkagesbetween at least some aspects of personal learning andgrowth to the wider community. Vibrant communitiesdo not just happen. They require the nurturing of‘Social capital’, which has been described as ‘the stockof active connections among people: the trust, mutualunderstanding, and shared values and behaviors thatbind the members of human networks and communitiesand make cooperative action possible’. (Cohen & Prusak2001, infed 2007)Ideally then, learning should be active, not passive,and directed towards community as well as individualdevelopment.Frameworks for lifelong learning & growth within acommunityAlready there are numerous formal and informalopportunities for individuals to undertake lifelong learningand growth within a community setting. However, thereis a challenge to connect such opportunities with activeparticipation. For a variety of reasons many peoplehold back from involvement in community learning andgrowth activities. Accordingly, there is at least an impliedresponsibility on community leaders to nurture suchinvolvement through a variety of approaches.One such proposed means of stimulating individuallifelong learning and growth within a societal setting is apersonal and community learning and growth frameworkcalled My SCORE Our MATCH.My SCORE Our MATCHMy SCORE Our MATCH is an acronym, standing forMySkills andCaringOngoingReview andEnrichmentlinked to a community growth partner resulting inOurMutualAssistanceTowardsCommunityHarmony.My SCOREMy SCORE is a formal recognition that each individualshould have a personal plan for individual skills andcommunity involvement. In this respect:• My- acknowledges a personal benefit from participationin various lifelong learning and community programs,but also requiring personal and active participation.• Skills- are needed for every aspect of life and, as partof lifelong learning, each person should have a planto develop general life skills across a range of areas,within defined periods. For instance, in addition tobeing a student, a young person may be planning toobtain a drivers license and therefore may wish tolearn some basic maintenance skills.• Caring- is included to indicate that we all can, andshould, help other people in our community. Inthis respect, we either grow as part of our localcommunity, or we grow apart from it. We cannotsay we are members of a community if we do notcontribute something to that community. We can eachcontribute in various ways: some through helping toorganize as well as participate in sporting teams; some

through visiting sick, elderly or disabled members ofour family or in community care centers; some throughmusical, drama, or other associations; some throughreligious organizations and the like. In our own way,we can each have some involvement, no matter howsmall, in an area that interests us but at the same timebenefits our community.• Ongoing- confirms that our lives are dynamic and areconstantly changing as a result of internal and externalfactors.• Review- requires a reflection of progress to datetowards planned skills and caring goals. Have weachieved what we set out to do for the currentperiod?• Enrichment- provides hope for the future, regardlessof the past. We cannot change what we have or havenot done in the past; however, we can strive to enrichthe future for ourselves and for those around us.Using the My SCORE framework, individuals are able tonominate desired learning and growth targets in order todevelop new skills and contribute to the growth of thecommunity over a specified period, usually one year.These plans are then subject to ongoing review, butalways with a future focus, for the purpose of enrichingthe person and the community.Our MATCHOur MATCH confirms that individuals are also part ofcommunities and as such there are shared benefits, butalso shared responsibilities, associated with being part ofthat community. Accordingly:• Our- highlights that more than one person is involved,either directly or indirectly, with almost every aspect ofindividual learning and growth.• Mutual- confirms a shared relationship.• Assistance- clarifies that as a community, each memberhas some role to play, as appropriate, in the growth ofthe community and, as part of this, in the learning anddevelopment of other community members.• Towards- indicates there is a purpose for the learningand growth.• Community- identifies that at least part of individuallearning and growth can, and should, benefit thecommunity• Harmony- acknowledges that the ultimate goal of anycommunity, and therefore of any learning and growth,is harmony. Terms such as community spirit, sharedvision and peace are all the goals and consequencesof people wanting to work together for a commongood. Individual and shared learning and growth cancontribute to improve living conditions for all.A community that provides a framework within whichindividual members can learn and grow not just for theirown benefit but also for the betterment of others is acommunity moving in the direction of harmony. Ofcourse this is an ideal that is seldom, if ever, achieved.However, where there is evidence of progress towardsa goal there is motivation to continue in that direction.Accordingly, it is the process as much as the end productthat provides returns to both the individuals concernedand to the community as a whole.My SCORE Our MATCH involves team input forshared resultsThe words “score” and “match” are usually identifiedwith success in sport. Most people enjoy watching and/or participating in sport. Although there is satisfactionassociated with success at an individual level, there is anadded dimension when the individual success contributesto team success. In this respect, in a team situation, “MySCORE” is not just for individual benefit but hopefullyleads to a result of “Our MATCH”. Then, both theindividual and the team are winners.For this reason, the individual and community learningand growth framework has been given the title of “MySCORE Our MATCH”, to remind each member ofthe community that at least some aspects of individuallearning and growth will benefit other people and thereforecommunity members can expect support and assistancefrom others in the learning and growth process.It is up to each community to actively work together inthe planning of community goals and how individualmembers can each contribute their SCORE towards theMATCH. Without intending to limit the involvement andlearning/growth direction of any community member,there are benefits in the existence of frameworks toprovide an organized structure to the individual andcommunity learning and growth activities.Template for My SCORE Our MATCH targetsThe framework associated with My SCORE OurMATCH is a simple one page template that is used byeach community member to identify personal learning andgrowth goals for a defined period of time. An exampleof such a template is at attachment 1. It provides for theinclusion of personal learning/caring targets across all107

108dimensions of life including formal study, health, fitness,hobbies, purpose in life, and community involvement.Some of the learning is largely for personal benefit, suchas preparing for a workforce career; other learning andcaring targets involve the community, such as membershipof a sports club, religious organization, communityassociation and the like.Individuals nominate their own learning and growth targetsin any of the dimensions of their lives. At different times,and for differing reasons, the learning/growth targets ofindividuals can expand or contract. What is important isthe overt process of nominating and aspiring towards aprogram of learning and growth.Role of “Community member” and “Learningpartner”The involvement by any community member in a learning/growth framework such as My SCORE Our MATCH, mustbe voluntary. However, involvement in such communitylearning and growth requires active participation, not justspectator presence on the sidelines.The community member is one of many members of thesame community. One of these other members becomesa special “learning partner”, with a mutual responsibilityto help and support the member in the achievement oflearning and growth targets.Therefore, the learning partner must be someone who canestablish a relationship of confidence and trust with themember. The two stay in contact with each other duringthe learning period, in order to encourage each other so thatat the end of the period there is a special feeling of sharedsuccess from helping each other to achieve more thanperhaps might otherwise have been the case if the memberwas undertaking the learning process entirely alone.To emphasize the mutual commitment of the communitymember and learning partner to help each other duringthe learning period, the targets of both the member andlearning partner are recorded side by side on the planningsheet, and signed by both, as confirmation of theirlearning and growth partnership.The learning partner could be someone around the sameage as the member; however, there are benefits in havingsomeone older, so that the younger member can benefitfrom the experience of the older learning partner in thelearning and growth process. For instance, the learningpartner might be a former student from the same schoolwho either works in the intended career field of thestudent or who shares an interest in the same sport, orthe like.In this situation, the younger member would benefit fromthe past experiences from the older learning partner;however, the older learning partner would also benefitfrom the fresh ideas and interests of the member. Indeed,in some areas of learning such as IT, the younger partneris likely to play a support role in the skill development ofthe older partner.Regardless of the age of the learning partner, (s)he isnot a “Coach”. The learning partner is simply anothercommunity member who is there for special mutualsupport and encouragement in meeting learning andgrowth targets. There will, of course, be times when a“Coach” is needed for one or more community membersin order to provide specific guidance. For example, amember and a learning partner may each be members of amusical society and the “Coach” is obviously the Directorof the organization.Progress results and reviewsAs in sport, it is important to keep track of progresstowards learning and growth targets. Therefore, wheneverthe member, or learning partner, achieves one of theirstated targets during the learning period, it is a time forshared acknowledgement and celebration.In addition, again as in sport, there should be agreed timeintervals when the member and learning partner reviewachievements to date, and any remaining challenges.Of course there may be internal or external factors thatrequire adjustment to original targets. For instance,the gaining of a part-time job by a student may requirepostponement of some of the original learning/growthtargets for the learning period.Final result and community celebrationsAt the end of the nominated learning/growth periodthere should be a result. Ideally, all the targeted learningand growth activities should have been achieved; however,there may be good reasons for non completion. Even insituations where some goals have not been completed,hopefully there is progress and therefore motivation tocontinue or restart the learning/growth during the nextperiod.

Since the community benefits from at least some ofthe individual learning/growth activities, it is not onlyappropriate but also important for the community, justlike a sports team, to celebrate individual and collectivesuccesses at the end of the season (and possibly evenduring the season). This can be in the form of specialoccasions during which certificates are presented to anymember who achieved their individual target “SCORE”.There can, of course, be other special awards, bothindividual and team, for outstanding achievementespecially in relation to community development.Next seasonFortunately, or unfortunately as the case may be, there isalways next season, both in sport and in life generally.Some seasons are better than others. Some seasons seesuccess; some see sadness.At different stages in people’s lives, there are moreopportunities for learning and growth than at othertimes. Accordingly, realistic and achievable targets areencouraged rather than risking unnecessary exposure to thefrustration and de-motivation associated with significantfailure. The learning partner and perhaps “Coach(s)” playan important role in objectively supporting and guidingthe member in the initial nomination of targets, and thesubsequent pursuance and review thereof.Learning partner selectionThe learning partner must be someone who can bothencourage and extend the member in the learning/growthprocess.There are always excuses for not being able to participatein nominated learning/growth activities. However, bothin sport and in life generally, excuses do not help tochange results. Solutions will! Therefore, just as insport, the learning partner needs to be someone who caneffectively motivate the member to participate at theirbest, under the given conditions at the time.There will be occasions when it is necessary for acommunity member to sit on the bench for a while. Forinstance, personal or family sickness can impact on allaspects of life, including learning/growth plans. It isespecially important for the learning partner to be thereto offer encouragement during such times and to ensurethe connection with the community is maintained.When to start My SCORE Our MATCHAnyone can participate in learning/growth at any age.Ideally, the involvement and commitment towards lifelonglearning and growth should be nurtured during the schoolyears. In particular, teachers are able toassume the role of a lifelong learning model for students,demonstrating that they have learning skills, respectknowledge and its context and share information on howto find and utilize sources, thus conveying their ability tothink critically” (Bryce et al n.d., p. 17).Students are used to a degree of externally directedorganization and discipline in their learning and growthprocess. Accordingly, the commencement of a seamlesspattern of involvement in lifelong learning/growthframeworks such as My SCORE Our MATCH in thelater years of schooling can provide the foundation andmomentum to continue into the future.Indeed, a simplified version of the My SCORE OurMATCH framework can be offered to primary students,with the learning partners coming from secondary classes.It is essential, of course, that any learning partner in aschool situation has the approval of the administrationand parents. It may also be appropriate to have morethan one member and learning partner linked togetherif it is considered this will enhance participation. Thereis no restriction on numbers within individual learningpartnerships; rather the emphasis is on facilitatinginclusion by any, and all, interested individuals in the mostappropriate means relevant to the situation.The amount of learning periods that a member and learningpartner remain together is by mutual agreement. Just as insport, for a variety of reasons, some learning partnerships lastmuch longer than others. The number of learning/growthsuccesses and connectedness are both contributing factors.Linking community “Teams” togetherEach community can have numerous learning partnerships,together perhaps with “Coach(s)”, working together toeach achieve their learning/growth targets.Within each community, there is of course the need tohave some infrastructure of support and communicationto facilitate the learning and growth activities of members.Schools, councils and community organizations will play aleading role in the establishment and maintenance of suchnetworks within a local community. The end results ofincreased harmony within the community will be directly109

correlated to the commitment and ongoing contributionby key community leaders.Increasingly, the internet and online link-ups are being usedfor communication and, in this respect; the existence of a“My SCORE Our MATCH” website for the community canbe one means of facilitating contact and co-ordination notjust within the community but also between communities.ConclusionLifelong learning and growth is for the development ofindividuals and communities.Especially with online access to previously undreamtof amounts of information, and the associated abilityto participate in learning and growth from the loungeroom, there are enhanced opportunities for individualsto participate in a raft of learning and developmentalactivities. Unfortunately, this new technology can alsohave negative consequences of isolation not just for thosewho do not have access or ability to participate, but alsofor those who over-participate at home, alone.110We are each individuals; however, we are each members ofa community. As such, our learning and growth activitiesgenerally do not just affect us but also, to varying degrees,those around us. Accordingly, there are both personaland communal consequences for at least some aspects ofindividual learning and growth.As a result, the community, as well as the person, has avested interest in the outcomes of individual learningand growth. Therefore, the community should not onlyfacilitate opportunities for individual lifelong learning/growth but also nurture such involvement, for widercommunity benefit, as well as for the person concerned.My SCORE Our MATCH is one such framework thatcan be used by a community and its members to plan,and subsequently review progress towards, learning andgrowth targets. Each member is encouraged to develop“My Skills and Caring Ongoing Review and Enrichment”in a supportive environment, involving “Our MutualAssistance Towards Community Harmony”.The learning and growth targets of each member of acommunity are recorded, and then a learning partnerassists the individual member in progress towardsnominated goals. The end result is a win for both theindividual and the local community.

Attachment 1My SCORE Our MATCH:Learning/growth contract ____________________________Community member: __________________________________Learning partner:For period from ______________________________ to ______________________________Area of learning/growthFormal study/trainingTargets forCommunity MemberTargets forLearning PartnerFitness/sport/healthHobbies111Faith/ purpose in lifeCommunity involvementOther____________________________________(Community Member)________________________________(Learning Partner)

REFERENCESBryce, J, Frigo, T, McKenzie, P, and Withers, G n.d., ‘The eraof lifelong learning: implications for secondary schools’,Australian Council for Education Research (ACER), pp.2-9, viewed 7 January 2007, Candy, P 2002, ‘Lifelong Learning and InformationLiteracy’ White Paper prepared for UNESCO, the USNational Commission on Libraries and InformationScience, and the National Forum on Information Literacy,for use at the Information Literacy Meeting of experts,Prague, the Czech Republic. Viewed January 2007,Ralph, D 2002, ‘Galvanising Commitment to LifelongLearning through Strategic Partnerships’. Paper presentedon 30 October 2000 at the Centre for the Economics ofEducation and Training National Conference, MobilisingResources for Lifelong Learning. Viewed January 2007,Warschauer, M 2002, ‘Reconceptualising the digital divide’in First Monday (7) 7 July 2002 [online], viewed 8 January2007, Colley, H, Hodkinson, P and Malcolm, J 2002, ‘Non-formallearning: mapping the conceptual terrain. A ConsultationReport’, infed 2007, viewed January 2007, 112ILFA 2007, ‘Guidelines on Information Literacy forLifelong Learning’, viewed 8 January 2007, Infed (the encyclopaedia of informal education) 2007,‘Social capital’, viewed 8 January 2007, Kearns, P 2004, ‘Towards a learning revolution in Australia– A consultation paper on future directions for lifelonglearning’. Canberra: Adult Learning Australia. Viewed6 January 2007, OECD/CERI, ‘A Report of the Learning Sciences andBrain Research Third Lifelong Learning Network Meeting,Hosted by RIKEN Brain Science Institute, 21-22 January2005, Wako-shi, Saitama, Japan, viewed January 2007,OECD/CERI, ‘Report on the Second Meeting of TheLifelong Learning Network Meeting’, Tokyo, Japan,13-14 January 2004, Organized by RIKEN BrainScience Institute (RIKEN BSI) and The OECD Centrefor Educational Research and Innovation )OECD/CERI) viewed January 2007,

Economic and CulturalDevelopments in KuwaitCompared to Other GulfStates: A Public OpinionSurveyMohsen A. BagniedIntroductionIn the Arab world, the Gulf region is by far the richestin oil resources, and probably the fastest to developand modernize. The region has gained particular globalattention due to its strategic importance. In recent decadesand since the discovery of vast oil reserves in the region,the Gulf States have attracted a wave of immigration fromall parts of the world, east and west. The compositionof the population in most Gulf countries have changedsignificantly, and foreign workers in some cases havebecome much more in number than the native population.This changes in population composition, together withthe fast pace of economic development have resulted inmajor cultural, economic, technological, legal, and politicalchanges in this important region.A preliminary review of economic and cultural conditionsin the Gulf region indicates that different states in theregion are following different development models. Theyrange from very conservative like Saudi Arabia to veryprogressive like Dubai. Obviously development objectivesvary from one country to another.The objective of this study is to examine through a publicopinion survey, how the residents of the State of Kuwaitview these differences, and what model of developmentfits the Kuwaiti values and aspirations. The study wasconducted in Kuwait. Business students at the AmericanUniversity of Kuwait (AUK) did participate in conductingthe survey. Over 500 individuals living in Kuwait, fromvarious nationalities were interviewed for the survey.Kuwait and the Gulf RegionIn the Gulf region, the economic and social developmentpatterns of Kuwait appear to be somewhat in the middlebetween conservative Saudi Arabia, and the more liberalDubai, UAE. Saudi Arabia, the richest Gulf country,follows progressive yet conservative economic policies.On the other hand, the strict application of Islamic lawin Saudi Arabia to preserve the local culture has madethat country the most conservative in the region regardingcultural and social development. The other extreme isDubai, with the most open economy in the region, and themost liberal society. Kuwait has relatively an open economyand a moderately conservative society that holds on somebasic Islamic laws such as prohibiting alcoholic drinkingand enforcing gender segregation. A traditional segment ofthe native Kuwaiti population appears to be content withthis pattern of development in Kuwait. What I would callmoderately conservative model of development.The current model of development in Dubai hasresulted in tremendous wealth, fame, fast growth andmodernization as well as an influx of foreign immigration.In 2006, Dubai population reached over 1.4 million that is20% above a year earlier. Over 97% of the labor force isforeign. Again, over 75% of the population is male. Withthis rapid growth, Dubai is experiencing major social,traffic and pollution problems. Many Kuwaitis considerDubai a nice place to visit and have fun in, but not to live,work and raise a family.Kuwait and Its Economy – Some Basic Facts• The State of Kuwait gained its independence fromBritish occupation in June 1961.• Kuwait is strategically located at the northwesternhead of the Arabian Gulf.• Current population is about 2.6 millions; about amillion are Kuwaiti nationals, and about 80% of thework force is non-Kuwaiti.• Relatively open economy dominated by the oilindustry.• Natural resources are mainly oil, fish, shrimp, andnatural gas.• Crude oil reserves in Kuwait at about 100 billionbarrels, or 10 % of world reserves, third after SaudiArabia and Iraq.• Oil represents 95% of export revenues, and 80% ofGovernment income.• Oil was first discovered in Kuwait in 1938 in BurganOil Field. The first shipment was exported in 1946.• Industry consists of several export-orientedpetrochemical plants, oil refineries, small manufacturers,water desalinization plants, fertilizer plants, blockcement factories, and food processing plants.• Agriculture is very limited.• Commercial Fishing is successful.• In 2004, Kuwait had a GDP of $48 billion, per capita113

GDP $21,300, GDP growth rate 6.8%, inflation rate2.3%, GDP by sector industry about 60%, and Serviceabout 40%., unemployment 2.2%. In 2005, GDPreached $74 billion.• Exports $27.4 billion, most to Japan, South Korea,US, Singapore and PRC.• Imports $11.1 billion, most from US, Japan, Germany,PRC, UK, and Saudi Arabia.• Kuwait currently produces about 3.5 million barrelsper day of crude oil.• Major exports are Oil, refined products, and fertilizers.• Major imports are food, construction materials,vehicles and parts, and clothing.• Current Account Balance (2005) is $31.5 billion.• Investment is about 6.6% of GDP.• Kuwaiti Dinar is strong, and is pegged to a basket ofcurrencies, in which the US dollar has the most weight.• Kuwait usually runs a balance of payment surplus.• Kuwait has a reserve fund of about $80 Billion,invested mostly in the US, Germany, the UK, France,Japan, and Southeast Asia.• Problems exit with air and water pollution.114* Developed by the Author in a 2004 conference paper.

Strategic planning:Proposed Areas for Improvement• Better Education and Training to all residents.• Legal reform, particularly in business law and taxation+ less Government bureaucracy.• More investment in Physical and Business Infrastructure,including roads, utilities, ports, research, marketing/promotion, logistics and information technology.• Greater investment in local industrial developmentto reduce reliance on oil, and to encouragediversification.• Improve work ethics through more accountability,more equality, and the prevention of corruption andnepotism (Wasta) in government services.• Improve management and quality control at both theprivate and public sectors.• Encourage local savings and investment, and discouragewaste in consumption of foreign luxury goods.Survey ResultsA Public opinion survey on Economic and Socialdevelopments in Kuwait vs. other Gulf countries wasconducted in Kuwait in March 2007. The Survey wasconducted on a random sample of over 500 residentsof Kuwait. It was collected by Business students at theAmerican University of Kuwait (AUK). About two-thirdsof the people surveyed were Kuwaitis while the restwere of various nationalities, most from Egypt, India,Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. Figure 1. About 55 % wereMales while 45% were Females. Close to 70% were collegeeducated, and 15% had graduate degrees. Again, about70% were young, under 26 years old. In terms of incomedistribution, they were about evenly divided between 3categories; less than KD 200 (32%), KD 201-500 (31%),and KD 501-2000 (30%).115

• Less than half of the people surveys were satisfied with the Economic and Social conditions in Kuwait. Figure 2.116• Table 1 indicates that the higher the income of respondents, the less satisfied they are with the economic conditions inKuwait. About 51 % of those under KD 200 category were satisfied, while in the over KD 2,000 category only 30% weresatisfied.

TABLE 1: Satisfied w/ the current Economic conditions in Kuwait X IncomeINCOME< 200 201 - 500 501 - 2000 > 2000 TOTALYES % within Income 50.9% 47.9% 34.2% 30.3% 43.6%NO % within Income 49.1% 52.1% 65.8% 69.7% 56.4%TOTAL % within Income 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%In terms of Gender, 53% of men were satisfied, compared to 60 % for women, Table 2.TABLE 2: Satisfied w/ the current Economic Conditions in Kuwait X GenderGENDERMALE FEMALETotalYES % within Gender 46.6% 40.0% 43.6%NO % within Gender 53.4% 60.0% 56.4%Total % within Gender 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%• In terms of the education level, over 55 % of those with high school education were satisfied, while only 41 percent ofrespondents with college or graduate degree were satisfied, Table 3.117TABLE 3: Satisfied w/ the current economic conditions in Kuwait X EducationHIGHSCHOOLEDUCATIONCOLLEGE GRADUATE TOTALYES % within Education 55.3% 41.4% 41.0% 43.6%NO % within Education 44.7% 58.6% 59.0% 56.4%Total % within Education 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%• The majority ranked Dubai ahead of Kuwait in terms of economic and cultural development, however, it was obviousthat more people ranked Dubai as # 1 in Economic Development, 83%, Figure 3, than for cultural development, 48%,Figure 4, Tables 4 and 5.

118TABLE 4: # 1 Gulf Country in Economic Development X GenderMALEGENDERFEMALETotalKUWAIT % within Gender 12.8% 12.1% 12.5%DUBAI % within Gender 82.8% 84.2% 83.4%SAUDI ARABIA % within Gender 4.5% 3.8% 4.2%TOTAL % within Gender 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

TABLE 5: Gulf Countries Ranking: Cultural development X GenderMALEGENDERFEMALETOTALKUWAITDUBAISAUDI ARABIATOTALCount 86 85 171% within Gender 29.7% 35.4% 32.3%Count 137 115 252% within Gender 47.2% 47.9% 47.5%Count 67 38 105% within Gender 23.1% 15.8% 19.8%Count 290 240 530% within Gender 100% 100 100• In terms of overall economic and cultural living conditions, again Dubai got the most votes 51%, followed by Kuwait36%, and third came Qatar at less than 5%, Figure 5.Figure 5: #1 Gulf C ountry in E conomic & Cultural living Conditions4.53% 0.94%2.08%2.83%2.26%0.19%36.23%#1 Gulf Country in Economic &cultural living conditionsKUW AITDUBAIABU-DHABIOTHER UAESAUDI ARABIABAHRAINQATAROMAN11950.94%What was surprising is that despite the strong votes for Dubai, when people were asked “Do you prefer to work and live inKuwait or Dubai”, the majority, 57% Preferred Kuwait, over Dubai, 43%, Figure 6. When asked why? The number 1 reasongiven was more money, 38%, Figure 7.

120• More men than women indicated preference for living and working in Kuwait, 61% compared to 52%, Table 6. By age,only those under 20 preferred working and living in Dubai over Kuwait, Table 7.

TABLE 6: Do you prefer to work & live in Kuwait or Dubai? X GenderKUWAITDUBAITOTALGENDERMALE FEMALE TOTALCount 177 126 303% within Gender 61.0% 52.5% 57.2%Count 113 114 227% within Gender 39.0% 47.5% 42.8%Count 290 240 530% within Gender 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%TABLE 7: Do you prefer to work & live in Kuwait or Dubai? X AgeAGEKUWAITDUBAITOTAL< 20 20 -25 26 -30 31 -45 46 -55 > 55 TOTALCount 71 130 47 38 14 3 303% within Age 45.8% 61.9% 61.0% 62.3% 66.7% 50.0% 57.2%Count 84 80 30 23 7 3 227% within Age 54.2% 38.1% 39.0% 37.7% 33.3% 50.0% 42.8%Count 155 210 77 61 21 6 530% within Age 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%121• When asked why they preferred a country over the other, the majority of men, 44% referred to more money, whilewomen were split between more fun 33%, and more money 31%, Table 8. A third major factor for women was “moreopen”, 25%.

TABLE 8: Why? X GenderGENDERMALE FEMALE TOTALMORE FUNMORE MONEYMORE OPENM O R EMODERNTOTALCount 72 78 150% within Gender 24.8% 32.5% 28.3%Count 129 74 203% within Gender 44.5% 30.8% 38.3%Count 45 60 105% within Gender 15.5% 25.0% 19.8%Count 44 28 72% within Gender 15.2% 11.7% 13.6%Count 290 240 530% within Gender 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%• In terms of age, 36% of people less than 20 years old sited more fun as the first factor. The older the respondents, upto 55 years, the more weight was given to money than any other factor, reaching 57% at 46-55 years category, Table 9.122TABLE 9: Crosstabulation: Why? X AgeMORE FUNMORE MONEYMORE OPENMOREMODERNTOTALAGE< 20 20 - 25 26 -30 31 - 45 46 - 55 > 55 TOTALCount 55 62 18 10 3 2 150% within Age 35.5% 29.5% 23.4% 16.4% 14.3% 33.3% 28.3%Count 44 82 32 31 12 2 203% within Age 28.4% 39.0% 41.6% 50.8% 57.1% 33.3% 38.3%Count 34 37 15 14 3 2 105% within Age 21.9% 17.6% 19.5% 23.0% 14.3% 33.3% 19.8%Count 22 29 12 6 3 0 72% within Age 14.2% 13.8% 15.6% 9.8% 14.3% .0% 13.6%Count 155 210 77 61 21 6 530% within Age 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%• In terms of the best overall economic and cultural living conditions in the Gulf region, the answer varied by nationality ofthe respondents. Dubai came as number one by 45 % of Kuwaitis, 56% of Egyptians, 67% of Syrians, 80% of Lebanese,and 61% of Indians, Table 10.

TABLE 10: Nationality X #1 Gulf Country in the Economic &cultural living conditions#1 Gulf Country in Economic & Cultural Living ConditionsKuwaitDubaiAbuDhabiOtherUAESaudiArabiaBahrain Qatar Oman TOTALKuwaitEgyptSyriaLebanonPalestineAlgeriaIndiaUSTOTALCount 142 158 1 7 12 8 19 4 351% withinNationality40.5% 45.0% .3% 2.0% 3.4% 2.3% 5.4% 1.1% 100.0%Count 15 25 0 2 1 2 0 0 45% withinNationality33.3% 55.6% .0% 4.4% 2.2% 4.4% .0% .0% 100.0%Count 1 8 0 1 0 0 2 0 12% withinNationality8.3% 66.7% .0% 8.3% .0% .0% 16.7% .0% 100.0%Count 4 20 0 0 1 0 0 0 25% withinNationality16.0% 80.0% .0% .0% 4.0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0%Count 1 6 0 0 1 0 0 0 8% withinNationality12.5% 75.0% .0% .0% 12.5% .0% .0% .0% 100.0%Count 4 4 0 1 0 0 2 0 11% withinNationality36.4% 36.4% .0% 9.1% .0% .0% 18.2% .0% 100.0%Count 10 17 0 0 0 1 0 0 28% withinNationality35.7% 60.7% .0% .0% .0% 3.6% .0% .0% 100.0%Count 1 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 8% withinNationality12.5% 87.5% .0% .0% .0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0%Count 189 270 1 12 15 11 24 5 527% withinNationality35.9% 51.2% .2% 2.3% 2.8% 2.1% 4.6% .9% 100.0%123• Overall, 51% selected Dubai, 36% selected Kuwait, 5% selected Qatar, and 3% selected Saudi Arabia.• In terms of the country that succeeded to improve living conditions for its residents, Dubai came as # 1 followed byKuwait, with more women than men by percentage voting for Dubai, 60% compared to 50%, Table 11.

TABLE 11: Success in improving Living conditions X GenderGENDERMALE FEMALE TOTALKUWAIT % within Gender 30.0% 26.7% 28.5%DUBAI % within Gender 50.0% 60.4% 54.7%OTHER UAE % within Gender 5.2% 2.9% 4.2%SAUDI ARABIA % within Gender 2.4% .8% 1.7%BAHRAIN % within Gender .7% 1.7% 1.1%QATAR % within Gender 9.3% 5.0% 7.4%OMAN % within Gender 2.4% 2.1% 2.3%TOTAL % within Gender 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%• When asked, should Kuwait follow Dubai Economic model of development, the majority, 77%, said yes, Table12, Figure 8.124TABLE 12: Should Kuwait follow Dubai Economic Model? X GenderGENDERMALE FEMALE TOTALYESNOTOTALCount 220 186 406% within Gender 75.9% 77.5% 76.6%Count 70 54 124% within Gender 24.1% 22.5% 23.4%Count 290 240 530% within Gender 100% 100% 100%

• However, on the contrary the majority, 51 %, did not want Kuwait to follow Dubai Social/cultural development model,Table 13, Figure 9.TABLE 13: Should Kuwait follow Dubai’s Social/Cultural development Model X GenderGENDERMALE FEMALE TOTALYESNOCount 142 119 261% within Gender 49.0% 49.6% 49.2%Count 148 121 269% within Gender 51.0% 50.4% 50.8%125TOTAL Count 290 240 530% within Gender 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%Figur e 9: Should K uwait follow D ubai Social/Cultur al development M odel?Should Kuwait follow Dubai Social/Cultural development Model?YESNO50.75%49.25%• In responding to a question on which Gulf Country managed to best preserve its cultural and social values, 35% votedfor Saudi Arabia, followed by Dubai and Kuwait, with about 26% each. Other countries included were Oman andBahrain, Table 14, Figure 10.

TABLE 14: Success in preserving Cultural/Social values X GenderGENDERMALE FEMALE TOTALKUWAIT % within Gender 24.5% 26.7% 25.5%DUBAI % within Gender 28.3% 24.6% 26.6%OTHER UAE % within Gender 2.8% 1.7% 2.3%SAUDI ARABIA % within Gender 35.2% 34.6% 34.9%BAHRAIN % within Gender 1.4% 5.8% 3.4%QATAR % within Gender 3.4% 2.1% 2.8%OMAN % within Gender 4.1% 4.6% 4.3%TOTALCount 290 240 530% within Gender 100% 100% 100%126F igur e 10: S ucces in pr eser ving C ultur al/S ocial values?2.83% 4.34%3.40%34.91%25.47%Succes in preserving Cultural/Social valuesKUWAITDUBAIABU-DHABIOTHER UAESAUDI ARABIABAHRAINQATAROMAN26.60%2.26%0.19%• However, when asked “should Kuwait follow strict Islamic Laws”, only 30% agreed. More women were against the idea,75%, than men, 66%, Table 15, Figure 11.

TABLE 15: Should Kuwait follow strict Islamic Laws? X GenderYESNOTotalGENDERMale Female MaleCount 98 59 157% within Gender 33.8% 24.6% 29.6%Count 192 181 373% within Gender 66.2% 75.4% 70.4%Count 290 240 530% within Gender 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%F igur e 11: S hould K uwait follow str ict Islamic L aws?29.62%Should Kuwait follow strict Islamic Laws?YESNO12770.38%First Woman Minister• Over 85 % of respondents felt that women in Kuwait are treated either normal or good, Figure 12.

• Gender wise, more men felt that women are treated well, 39.3% compared to 27.1 percent for women, Table 16.TABLE 16: How women are treated in Kuwait? X Gender128GOODNORMALBADTotalGENDERMALE FEMALE TOTALCount 114 65 179% within Gender 39.3% 27.1% 33.8%Count 133 140 273% within Gender 45.9% 58.3% 51.5%Count 43 35 78% within Gender 14.8% 14.6% 14.7%Count 290 240 530% within Gender 100% 100% 100%H.H. Emir of Kuwait welcomes women to Parliament• Less than 15 % of both women and men felt that women are treated badly in Kuwait. People with less education gavehigher percentage votes for good and bad treatment and below average vote for normal treatment, Table 17.

TABLE 17: How women are treated in Kuwait? X EducationGOODNORMALBADTOTALEDUCATIONHIGHSCHOOLCOLLEGE GRADUATE TOTALCount 32 119 28 179% within Education 37.6% 32.4% 35.9% 33.8%Count 33 202 38 273% within Education 38.8% 55.0% 48.7% 51.5%Count 20 46 12 78% within Education 23.5% 12.5% 15.4% 14.7%Count 85 367 78 530% within Education 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%• With regard to the treatment of foreign workers, the votes were about split between normal and bad, with 43 % fornormal and 42% for bad, Figure 13.F igur e 13: H ow for eign wor ker s are treated in K uwait?14.72%How foreign workers are treated in Kuwait?GOODNORMALBAD12942.08%43.21%* Only about 15% considered the treatment as good, Table 18. About one third of Kuwaitis in the survey felt that thetreatment of foreign workers is bad, with 47% felt that it is normal.

TABLE 18: How foreign workers are treated in Kuwait? X Nationality130KUWAITEGYPTSYRIALEBANONSAUDI ARABIAPALESTINEJORDANINDIAUSTotalHow foreign workers are treated?GOOD NORMAL BAD TOTALCount 65 166 120 351% within Nationality 18.5% 47.3% 34.2% 100.0%Count 5 17 23 45% within Nationality 11.1% 37.8% 51.1% 100.0%Count 1 1 10 12% within Nationality 8.3% 8.3% 83.3% 100.0%Count 2 6 17 25% within Nationality 8.0% 24.0% 68.0% 100.0%Count 0 1 6 7% within Nationality .0% 14.3% 85.7% 100.0%Count 1 4 3 8% within Nationality 12.5% 50.0% 37.5% 100.0%Count 1 5 5 11% within Nationality 9.1% 45.5% 45.5% 100.0%Count 2 12 14 28% within Nationality 7.1% 42.9% 50.0% 100.0%Count 0 4 4 8% within Nationality .0% 50.0% 50.0% 100.0%Count 78 228 221 527% within Nationality 14.8% 43.3% 41.9% 100.0%

• When asked about which culture they prefer, two-thirds of the people surveyed preferred Arab Culture, while one-thirdpreferred western culture, Figure 14. However, the survey indicates that the preference for Arab culture was weakeramong the young age and among women, Tables 19, 20.TABLE 19: Favorite Culture X GenderGENDERMALE FEMALE TOTALARAB % within Gender 69.7% 60.8% 65.7%WESTERN % within Gender 30.3% 39.2% 34.3%Total % within Gender 100% 100% 100%131TABLE 20: Favorite Culture X Age CrosstabulationARABWESTERNTOTALAGE< 20 20 - 25 26 – 30 31 - 45 46 - 55 > 55 TOTALCount 95 139 53 40 17 4 348% within Age 61.3% 66.2% 68.8% 65.6% 81.0% 66.7% 65.7%Count 60 71 24 21 4 2 182% within Age 38.7% 33.8% 31.2% 34.4% 19.0% 33.3% 34.3%Count 155 210 77 61 21 6 530% within Age 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

• In terms of the preference of economic system, 51% preferred the capitalist system, followed by the Islamic system,31%, and finally the socialist system, 18 %, Figure 15. Capitalism was more popular among higher income group ofover KD 2,000 per month, 61%, Table 21. Meanwhile, Islamic system was the highest, 39%, among the KD 501-2000group.F i gur e 15: F av or i te E conomic S y stemFavorite Economic SystemCAPITALISMSOCIALISMISLAMIC31.13%50.75%18.11%TABLE 21: Crosstabulation: Income X Favorite Economic System132Favorite Economic SystemCAPITALISM SOCIALISM ISLAMIC TOTAL< 200 KD % within Income 55.0% 18.7% 26.3% 100.0%200 - 500 % within Income 52.1% 19.4% 28.5% 100.0%501 - 2000 % within Income 42.9% 18.0% 39.1% 100.0%> 2000 KD % within Income 60.6% 9.1% 30.3% 100.0%TotalCount 269 96 165 530% within Income 50.8% 18.1% 31.1% 100.0%• In terms of education, the capitalist system was highest among the more educated, 56%, while Socialism was morepopular among the less educated, 27%, Table 22.

TABLE 22: Crosstabulation: Education X Favorite Economic SystemFavorite Economic SystemCAPITALISM SOCIALISM ISLAMIC TOTALHIGHSCHOOLCOLLEGEGRADUATECount 44 23 18 85% within Education 51.8% 27.1% 21.2% 100.0%Count 181 62 124 367% within Education 49.3% 16.9% 33.8% 100.0%Count 44 11 23 78% within Education 56.4% 14.1% 29.5% 100.0%TOTAL Count 269 96 165 530% within Education 50.8% 18.1% 31.1% 100.0%• By Nationality, Capitalism was the favorite among all the major nationalities included in the survey. However, Islamicsystem ranked second among Kuwaitis and Egyptians, 33%, and 31%, respectively, while Socialism ranked second amongSyrians, Lebanese and Indians, 42%, 28%, and 32% respectively, Table 23.TABLE 23: Nationality X Favorite Economic System133Favorite Economic SystemCAPITALISM SOCIALISM ISLAMIC TOTALKUWAIT % within Nationality 51.6% 15.4% 33.0% 100.0%EGYPT % within Nationality 44.4% 24.4% 31.1% 100.0%SYRIA % within Nationality 50.0% 41.7% 8.3% 100.0%LEBANON % within Nationality 48.0% 28.0% 24.0% 100.0%SAUDI ARABIA % within Nationality 57.1% 14.3% 28.6% 100.0%PALESTINE % within Nationality 25.0% 25.0% 50.0% 100.0%JORDAN % within Nationality 18.2% 27.3% 54.5% 100.0%INDIA % within Nationality 46.4% 32.1% 21.4% 100.0%US % within Nationality 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0%Total % within Nationality 50.7% 18.2% 31.1% 100.0%• In response to a question on whether oil should be the basis for economic development in Kuwait, 64% disagreed, Table 24, Figure 16.

TABLE 24: Should Oil be the Basis for Economic Dev. In Kuwait? X IncomeINCOME< 200 KD 200 - 500 501 - 2000 > 2000 TOTALYES % within Income 39.2% 33.9% 36.6% 33.3% 36.4%NO % within Income 60.8% 66.1% 63.4% 66.7% 63.6%TOTALCount 171 165 161 33 530% within Income 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%Figur e 16: Should Oil be the B asis for E conomic Dev. In K uwait?Should Oil be the Basis for Eco. Dev. In Kuwait?YESNO36.42%63.58%134• Table 25 shows that people with higher education tend to disagree more on the reliance only on oil for future economicdevelopment in Kuwait.TABLE 25: Should Oil be the Basis for Economic Dev. In Kuwait? X EducationYESNOEDUCATIONHIGHSCHOOLCOLLEGE GRADUATE TOTALCount 37 134 22 193% within Education 43.5% 36.5% 28.2% 36.4%Count 48 233 56 337% within Education 56.5% 63.5% 71.8% 63.6%Total Count 85 367 78 530% within Education 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%• Another area of dissatisfaction is the current spending habits of Kuwaitis, Figure 17. About 64% of respondentsdisapproved the current spending habits, Table 26.

TABLE 26: Crosstabulation: Kuwaitis spending Habits? X GenderGENDERMALE FEMALE TOTALYES % within Gender 35.9% 36.7% 36.2%NO % within Gender 64.1% 63.3% 63.8%TotalCount 290 240 530% within Gender 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%• Less educated respondents appear to be less concerned with the spending habits, 48% with High School were concerned,compared to 67% with higher education, Table 27.135TABLE 27: Crosstabulation: Kuwaitis spending Habits? X EducationHIGHSCHOOLEDUCATIONCOLLEGE GRADUATE TOTALYES % within Education 51.8% 33.2% 33.3% 36.2%NO % within Education 48.2% 66.8% 66.7% 63.8%Total % within Education 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%• Regarding the issue of which economic integration group Kuwait should join, about 38% preferred an Arab EconomicUnion, followed by a free trade area with the US, 24%, and the Gulf Cooperation Council came third at 23%, Figure 18.

F i gur e 18: S hould K uwa it J oi n a n E conomic G r oup?23.21%38.30%Should Kuwait Join an Economic Group?ARAB ECONOMIC UNIONFREE TRADE AREA W ITH THE USTHE EUROPEAN UNIONGULF COOPERATION COUNCIL14.72%23.77%* The greatest support for the Arab Economic Union was among the college educated, Table 28. In general, there was lessinterest in joining the European Union, less than 15%.Map of the Arab countries, members of the Arab LeagueTABLE 28: Should Kuwait Join an Economic Group? X Education136EDUCATIONHIGHSCHOOLCOLLEGE GRADUATE TOTALARAB ECO. UNION % within Education 37.6% 39.5% 33.3% 38.3%FREE TRADE AREA W/ US % within Education 30.6% 20.7% 30.8% 23.8%EUROPEAN UNION % within Education 9.4% 15.8% 15.4% 14.7%GULF COOPERATIONCOUNCIL% within Education 22.4% 24.0% 20.5% 23.2%TOTALCount 85 367 78 530% within Education 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Major Conclusions andRecommendations:1. Over half of respondents were less than satisfiedwith the economic conditions in Kuwait. This wasparticularly the case among women, more educatedand higher income groups.2. Most people in Kuwait rank Dubai as # 1 and Kuwait# 2 in terms of economic and cultural developmentin the Gulf. Younger people and women appear to beparticularly impressed with Dubai.3. Most people would like to see Kuwait following theDubai model of Economic Development.4. On the contrary, the majority of people did not wantto see Kuwait following Dubai model of Social andCultural Development.5. Despite the fascination with Dubai, the majority ofpeople surveyed preferred to live and work in Kuwaitthan in Dubai. More money was a major reason cited.6. The respondents ranked Saudi Arabia as # 1 in theGulf in terms of preserving its social and culturalvalues.7. However, the majority of respondents were againstapplying strict Islamic Law in Kuwait. With 75% ofwomen against the idea.8. It was generally agreed that women were not treatedbadly in Kuwait. On the other hand, 42%, includingone third of Kuwaitis felt that foreign workers weretreated badly.9. The majority of respondents showed a preferenceof Arab Culture over western culture. However thepreference was weaker among women and youngpeople.10. Capitalism was the favorite economic system amongrespondents, followed by Islamic economic system.Little interest was shown for the Socialist system,except among people from Syria, Lebanon and India.11. The majority of respondents felt that Kuwait shouldnot rely only on oil for economic development.12. The majority of respondents disapproved the currentspending habits of Kuwaitis.13. There was more support for Kuwait to Join anArab Economic Union that other forms of regionalEconomic Integration groups. Least interest was tojoin the European Union.14. The author recommends certain measures for Kuwaitto accelerate the rate of economic development.These include better education and training for humanresources, legal reform for business law, encouraginggreater domestic savings and investment, encouraginggreater industrial diversification, promoting better workethics and fighting corruption, and greater investmentin both physical and business infrastructure.Survey of Economic and Cultural Developments inKuwait1. Are you satisfied with the current economic conditionsin Kuwait?Yes _____ No _____2. Is Kuwait going in the right direction in terms ofeconomic development?Yes _____ No _____3. Please rank the following Gulf countries in terms oftheir success in developing their economies: Kuwait,Saudi Arabia, and Dubai.1. 2. 3.4. Are you satisfied with the current social/culturalconditions in Kuwait?Yes _____ No _____5. Is Kuwait going in the right direction in terms ofsocial/cultural development?Yes _____ No _____6. Please rank the following Gulf countries in terms oftheir success in developing their culture: Kuwait, SaudiArabia, and Dubai.1. 2. 3.7. Among all Gulf States, which one has the best overalleconomic and cultural living conditions for you?______________________8. Which country in the Gulf succeeded in improving livingconditions for its residents? __________________9. Which country in the Gulf managed to best preserve itscultural and social values? _____________________10. What do you think about the treatment of women inKuwait?_____Good _____ Normal _____ Bad137

13811. What do you think about the treatment of foreignworkers in Kuwait?_____Good _____ Normal _____ Bad12. Do you prefer to work and live in Kuwait or Dubai?__ Kuwait ___ Dubai12.a. Why? ___ More Fun ___ More Money ___ MoreOpen ___ More Modern13. Which culture do you prefer? _____ Arab _____Western14. Which Economic System do you prefer?___Western (Capitalism) ___ Socialism (China) ___Islamic (Saudi Arabia)15. Would you like Kuwait to follow Dubai model ofEconomic Development?Yes _____ No _____16. Do you like Kuwait to follow Dubai model of Socialand Cultural development?Yes _____ No _____17. Do you think that Oil should be the basis for economicdevelopment in Kuwait?Yes _____ No _____18. Do you approve of the current spending habits ofKuwaitis?Yes _____ No _____19. Should Kuwait join:___ An Arab Economic Union ___ Free Trade Area withthe US___ The European Union ___Gulf CooperationCouncil20. Should Kuwait Follow strict Islamic laws?Yes _____ No _____21. Your Gender: _____ Male _____ Female22. Your Age: ___ Under 20 ___20-25 ___26-30 ___31-45 ___46-55 ___Over 5523- Monthly Income (KD): __ under 200 __ 201-500 __501-2000 __over 200024. Your Education: ___High School ___College ___Graduate Degree (MS, Ph.D.)25- Your Nationality: _______________________

Panel Discussion*:Labor Market Dynamicsin Kuwait: A Multi-Perspective ApproachMourad DakhliOur project entails surveying and analyzing labor marketdynamics in Kuwait. Acknowledging the complexity of thismarket and the multiple drivers affecting its structure, weadopt a multi-perspective approach. The economic aspectof our study will focus on labor supply and demand, wagestructures, mobility, and overall efficiency. Implicationfor entrepreneurial intention and undertaking will alsobe assessed in this part of the project. The historicaldimension of our analysis will focus on identifying the keyhistorical events and critically assess their implications onthe current structure and dynamics of the labor market.The legal/ethical perspective will provide a theoreticallydriven assessment of government actions affecting themarket, and the regulatory and ethical consequences. Themedia perspective will study media coverage of laborrelatedevents and issues and compare the nature of thiscoverage for local versus foreign media sources. Finally,the psychological perspective will address how a number ofnegative psychological outcomes including discriminationand depression are associated with the structure of thelabor market.Labor Market Dynamics In Kuwait:Implications for Entrepreneurial Intention andActivityWe use a number for key labor economics models andtheories to analyze and explain the structure and dynamicsof the labor market in Kuwait. Our analysis is dividedinto the following parts. First, we use the law of laborsupply and demand to explain labor distribution and wagestructure. Second we look at labor mobility and efficiencywith a focus on the human capital dimension. Third, welook at the economic impact of labor unions and collectivebargaining. Finally, we assess the role of the governmentin shaping the efficiency of the labor market and onaffecting the growth of entrepreneurial undertaking inKuwait. The aim is to identify the economic challengesand opportunities of the labor market, evaluate itsrelationships to entrepreneurship, and assess it’s potentialcontribution to fostering the socioeconomic developmentof the country as a whole.In the Gulf area the labor market exhibits a numberof interesting, and at times, peculiar characteristics thatare born out of the historical, social, and economictransformations that characterize the entire Gulf area.Nonetheless, the Kuwaiti market exhibits a number ofcountry-specific characteristics. Among the many reasonsbehind this uniqueness is Kuwait’s traditional role as a firstmover when it comes to important economic and politicalchanges (though this is no longer the case), as well as theexperience of having been invaded and occupied by itsmuch larger neighbor who still claims Kuwait as one of itsprovinces. In addition, Kuwaitis have been the minoritypopulation in their own country for a long time.Like many of its GCC neighbors. Kuwait depends toa large extend on the huge pool of expatriate workers.The expatriate labor force is divided into two categories,domestic and professional. Key supply countries for thedomestic include the Philippines, India, Bangladesh, andIndonesia. On the professional side, Egypt, Lebanon, aswell as a number of Western countries such as Englandand the United States provide much of the labor force.Recent statistics indicate that about 90% of the Kuwaitilabor force is employed in the public sector, and about90% of the private labor force is employed in the privatesector.* Panelist include: Mourad Dakhli, Christopher Ohan, AnnScholl, Mohammed Shaheed, Juliet Dinkha, Conerly CaseyWhile the government has put a set of incentives toencourage private sector employment for Kuwaiti, marketsupply and demand and government regulations still leadKuwaitis to seek employment within the large governmentbureaucracy. Wage structures and distribution as wellas benefits also provide economic incentives for publicemployment. Because of the disparity in wages andbenefits between Kuwaitis and non-Kuwaitis, private firmsfind it more cost effective to employ non-Kuwaitis. This isfurther exasperated by the complexity of lay-off policies forKuwaiti nationals. Job security, generous pay and benefitspackages, and non-demanding performance expectationsmay have negatively affected entrepreneurial drive andactivity. The goal of this research is to analyze the maincharacteristics of the labor market, and assess their role infostering or inhibiting entrepreneurial activity in Kuwait.To achieve this goal, we survey potential and existingentrepreneurs. We use survey and scenario methodologyto assess the degree to which certain market characteristicspromote or hinder entrepreneurial intention and activity.139

140Conditions of Kuwaiti Dependence: Labor andSecurityKuwait is a modern city-state established in the eighteenthcentury on the Arabian peninsula which, because of itssmall population and size must rely on outside assistancefor protection. This situation was originally accepted bythe ruling elite and, more recently, by the native Kuwaitipopulation as an unalterable situation that necessitates afundamental level of dependence. This dependence is adouble-edged sword that effects not only security but alsothe labor force in general.Contact between Britain and Kuwait can be traced to thelate eighteenth century. In 1792 the English East IndiaCompany transferred its agency from Basra to Kuwaitbecause of difficulties with the Ottoman authoritiesthere. While Kuwait was technically part of the OttomanEmpire the Turks had never exercised anything other thannominal authority over Kuwait. This left both the rulersof Kuwait and the British relatively free to engage indiplomatic activity with one another, of which the Britishtook advantage by stationing a political officer in Kuwaitby 1821. By the end of the century Kuwait’s rulers soughtto increase their reliance on the British for protectionagainst Ottoman Turkey. Although Kuwait was not anindependent principality, the ruling Al-Sabah family, bystrengthening ties with the British, had no choice butto surrender some of the autonomy the Sheikdom hadenjoyed for over a century. While security was not amajor issue until the end of the nineteenth century, thecommercial position of the state had, by that time, alreadybeen fundamentally split between rural Bedouin andmore urban Kuwaitis. Thus the combination of outsidedependence for protection and the formal division in thestate’s laboring classes can be seen as the roots not onlyof Kuwait’s current population which is more than halfexpatriate, but also the strictly guarded and privilegedstatus of Kuwaiti citizenship.Dependence: LaborThe tradition of a division of labor based upon class hasa long history in Kuwait. In the nineteenth century themajority of Kuwaiti laborers were mariners—sailors, pearldivers and fisherman. On the other hand the bedouin werea land-based group focused on finding pastureland. Theywere responsible for enforcing the decisions of the rulersand even for supplying forces when Kuwait engaged inwarfare. So labor was divided between Kuwaiti marinersand the bedouin who made up a sort of army or lawenforcement. Another interesting factor is that economicrelationship between mariners, the bedouin and the rulingAl Sabah family was based on debt.The whole economic structure of the [pearling] industryeven more than in ship-owning, was based on debt.Everybody was in debt—the diver to the nakhoda[captain], the nakhoda to the merchant who financedhim, the merchant to some other merchant bigger thanhimself, the bigger merchant to the sheikh. The wholebusiness was based on debt, debts which were rarely paidbecause the paying of them was impossible.While the classes themselves were separate, they werelinked socially and economically. This linkage basedon debt or obligation is one that would continue afterthe growth of the oil industry and the large influx ofexpatriate workers.In 1946 Kuwait began oil exports, which grew quickly.The huge income resulting from oil reduced the influenceof the merchant elites and brought about fundamentalsocial change. According to Ghanim al-Najjar, “Thiscreated a new breed of potential merchants who startedto appear either by being connected to the [ruling] family,or because they were directors of a ministry…. They hadthe choice to push and go into it and compete with othersor just to sit…. They all came in.” Potential oil revenuethus served to galvanize Kuwaitis into a bloc determinedto preserve its integrity and protect access to citizenship.By 1953 there were approximately 41,000 “guest workers”employed in Kuwait, 90% of whom were unskilled andworking for wages of $1/day.Kuwait remained an attractive destination for internationalmigrants. When Kuwait declared its independencefrom Britain in 1961 there was already a large Indianpopulation. In addition, the small state’s self-proclaimedpolitical neutrality in the Middle East made it a favorablerefuge for Jordanian Palestinians, Syrians, Lebanese andother Arabs. In fact, in the years immediately followingindependence, Kuwaitis were a minority, making up only47 percent of the total population by 1965.The traditional dependence on immigrant labor notonly embedded a huge population of subject people inthe daily lives of Kuwaiti people, but it also underminedtraditional conception of citizen-as-subject amongKuwaitis. According to one study of labor migrationin Kuwait conducted in the 1980s there was a certain“confusion of identity” that existed in the state and was

exemplified in unstable gender roles that correspondto status. Today for example, Kuwaiti men are usuallyperceived as masculine and dominant while Asian womenare perceived as powerless and always without power. Allother groups fall somewhere between these two extremes.Given prevalence and visibility of foreign labor and theresulting issues with identity, it is not surprising thatamong native Kuwaitis there is a growing fear regardingcultural integrity. This fear has manifest itself in a legalsystem that serves to protect “native” rights (power) atthe expense of the foreign (powerless) laborers.Until 1964 the original Aliens Residence Law, the PrivateSector Labor Law, the Nationality Law, and the Law ofCommercial Companies allowed relatively free migrationunder close government control. The spirit of the laws,however, maintained the prerogative of national controlover the most profitable sectors in Kuwait’s economy.As a result of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War and associatedinternal disagreement, the Ministry of the Interior limitedmigration and abandoned the provision that waived visarequirement for fellow Arabs. While security concernswere important, they have always been relegated to asubordinate place in Kuwait in light of labor shortages.In order to cope with this apparent immigrationinconsistency, the country has a tradition of relaxingcertain laws allowing workers in yet strengthening oradopting others in an effort to maintain the dominance ofnationals. In order to maximize profits as well as maintaina rising standard of living for the minority Kuwaitis, thecountry continues to have an awkward reliance on animmigrant population that is never officially consideredpermanent. For example, by the late 1970s the entryand employment of dependents was restricted. As thenumber of non-Muslims rose through immigration,political tensions between advocates of liberalizationand supporters of restriction increased. This tensionwas manifest in the rising political strength of Kuwait’sreligious conservatives. One effect of this conservativeinfluence was the amending of the Naturalization Lawwhich, by 1982 restricted citizenship only to Muslims.The 1899 Anglo-Kuwaiti Bond/Treaty set up a systemwhich promised the Kuwaiti ruler protection from outsideaggression and non-interference in Kuwait’s internalaffairs. In return for this, Kuwait surrendered any controlof its foreign affairs. This formal division in domesticand foreign control ultimately led in 1925 to the creationof two distinct legal systems within Kuwait; NationalJurisdiction which applied to Kuwaiti citizens, Arabnationals, Iranian nationals, and citizens of the Britishprotectedstates in the Gulf, and British Jurisdiction whichapplied to all others, including British citizens, citizens ofall nations in the British Commonwealth—mainly Indiansand Pakistanis.In the early twentieth century Kuwait was a semitribalIslamic society and this dual system relieved Kuwait ofdealing with problems involving Christians or Hindus,for example. Initially the number of cases comingthrough British Jurisdiction was relatively small. In 1953the number heard in the British Court was only four.With the development of the oil industry and the influxof additional expatriate workers, however, the numberquickly increased. By 1955 the number of cases in theBritish Court was over two hundred. The growing wealthand power of Kuwaitis coupled with the more visibleinfluence of British Jurisdiction led to an increase inKuwaiti nationalism.By 1960 with the growing anti-British sentiment inKuwait, the Law of Commercial Companies was passed.It mandated that 51 percent of all companies in Kuwait beowned by Kuwaitis. With the added incentive fostered bythe creation of a welfare state that promised free housing,utilities, education, and medical care, the population andmerchant class were won over to the idea of ending theprotectorate. On 19 June 1961, the Protectorate wasformally abolished and less than a month later, on 1 July,all British courts operating in Kuwait were closed. Whilethe formalities of a dual legal system had ended, thetradition of distinct laws applying to expatriate workersdid not.The 1964 Kuwaiti Labor Law was drafted to defineworkers’ rights, including the right of the employee tosue for violations of work contracts. With the continuedgrowth of the expatriate labor force, Kuwaitis clearlyfelt outnumbered and threatened by migrants. In fact,the mechanisms of this law were and continue to beproblematic since the employee cannot work for anyoneelse during the trial and, since the original employer isunlikely to continue supporting someone suing him/her, the migrant employee is left with neither an incomenor a place to live. In addition, without the protectionof the British Jurisdiction, the 1959 Residency Law couldbe arbitrarily applied. According to this law an alien canbe deported as a result of a judicial or an administrativedecision taken by the authorities if 1) the alien had beenconvicted and the court has recommended deportation,141

1422) if the alien has no means of sustenance, or 3) if thereare moral or security reasons if the alien continues toreside in Kuwait. As Longva points out, the 1964 lawdoes not consider the fact that there is nothing to preventthe employer from accusing the worker of some morallyobjectionable behavior that could lead to deportation—ineffect the application of the 1959 Residency Law—andthe end of any lawsuit.An example of the precarious position of expatriatelaborers can be found in an April 2007 letter from Kuwait’sPrivate Universities Council (PUC) to the AmericanUniversity of Kuwait. Basing its critique on a newspaperarticle, the letter states, some foreign professors workingat private foreign universities in Kuwait (the AmericanUniversity of Kuwait)…are intentionally spreading theteachings of modernism which contradicts our Islamicreligion, belief system, traditions and values of Kuwaitisociety. These professors also promote their modernistideas, waging a war against Islam and spreading the poetryand literature of sexuality, alcohol and immoral love inorder to westernize youth…. This calls for a collectiveand firm position to stop these westernizing intellectualsatires. The [newspaper] article mentions that a femaleprofessor…is teaching a course against our uncontestedIslamic religion, traditions and societal orthodoxies.Again, based on information on from a newspaper article,the PUC demanded that the university provide “subjects,topics, reference and articles” about a particular course.The letter questioned whether this unnamed professordecided “to spread her westernizing and modernistintellectual beliefs without considerations for our Islamicreligion and beliefs?”The American University of Kuwait’s own missionstatement calls for providing students with an “Americanstyleliberal arts education.” Its stated values include“freedom of thought and expression and emphasizes theneed for students to learn how to think critically.” Thefounding president says the institution is “devoted toproviding its students with the tools, skills, experience,and motivation to think critically, reason logically,communicate effectively, and write creatively whiledeepening their understanding of different fields ofknowledge.” Despite its western model, the university isa Kuwaiti institution and can offer none of the standardprotections of academic freedom afforded to instructorsin other countries. Consequently, faculty at the institutionare virtually without representation or protection. Thus,a distinguished expatriate professor can as easily bedeported from Kuwait on a morality charge as a taxidriver. Walking a fine line between legality and perceivedmorality, the university did not want to jeopardize its ownposition and, therefore, asked the professor to write herown response to the morality “charges.” The case has yetto be resolved but serves to demonstrate the precariousnature of expatriate labor in Kuwait.Domestic workers are not protected by the Labor Lawas they work under the authority of the Ministry of theInterior rather than the Ministry of Social Affairs andLabor. In addition, conflicts on this level are consideredissues to be solved in the domestic setting, not openlyin law courts. “[T]he sponsorship system ultimatelyprotects local populations, who perceive themselves asbeing “under siege.” In doing do, sponsorship severelycircumscribes some of the most fundamental freedomsof migrant workers and exploits their dependency andvulnerability. The laws which apply to foreign laborersare so lose that they can be applied arbitrarily or in somecases circumscribed by employers leaving workers in astate of dependent limbo.Foreign workers receive entry visas and residency onlywhen employed by a citizen or institution. Sponsorship(kafala) requires sponsor-employer (kafeel) to takefull economic and legal responsibility for the workerduring the period of contract. The kafeel is obligated torepatriate the worker at the end of the contract. Thiscreates a system where the workers are totally dependenton the good will of the employer. According to a UnitedNations Development Programme report on humanrights in Kuwait, the guarantor system for foreign worksis an impediment that can violate their basic rights. Infact, workers are not even free to offer their labor to thehighest bidder and either party can break the contact at anytime. Most workers, however, will endure hardship ratherthan suffer the economic loss of breaking a contract.Dependence is increased when many workers are requiredto surrender their passports. This is not required by lawbut is a common practice in Kuwait and is legitimized onthe grounds that since expatriates outnumber Kuwaitis,they compose a security risk. Confiscating passports isconsidered a measure of crime prevention as it protectsKuwaitis from a potentially criminal foreign labor force.According to a US State Department report on Kuwaitilabor practices, “Employers often exploited workers’willingness to accept substandard conditions. Noncitizen

workers, especially less-skilled South Asian laborers, livedand worked much like indentured servants, were unawareof their legal rights, and generally lacked the means topursue legal remedies.” While all laborers in Kuwait haveaccess to the court system and “courts rule in favor ofemployees in an estimated 90 percent of the labor disputesthey hear,” there are no legal ways to force employers toabide by court decisions or pay court-awarded damages.In fact, employers often “used illegal methods topressure foreign employees to drop cases against them,such as withholding their passports, encouraging policeintimidation and brutality, threatening deportation, andfiling criminal charges against them for fabricated crimes,such as theft.”In July 1991 the Kuwaiti prime minister linked thecountry’s labor dependence to the recovery following theIraqi invasion. He said, reaching the desired balance inpopulation composition is no longer considered to bea social objective and target; instead, it has become aninescapable necessity, as a result of the limited financialresources inflicted by the occupier’s destruction of thecountry’s oil wealth, and damage done to the nationaleconomic structure, establishments, and installations.The dependence would increase in the decade followingthe invasion but the status of foreign workers would notchange. They often continue to endure less than idealworking conditions in Kuwait because of the relativelyhigh salaries and abundance of employment. In additionmany workers, particularly in the domestic sphere, whichis largely populated by Indians and Southeast Asians, sendthe bulk of their salaries back to their families at home.For many, therefore, Kuwait becomes a means to an endrather than the ideal working environment. This modelserves the state well as it provides the foreign labor uponwhich Kuwait is dependent and also discourages thoselaborers from considering Kuwait a permanent home, thuspreserving the cultural dominance of Kuwaiti nationals.Dependence: SecurityAlthough studies have shown that the legacy of westernimperialism is usually the restructuring of social classesand the end of traditional governing elites, Kuwait’s rulingAl-Sabah family was able to retain its power after 1961.The preservation of its rulers both while Kuwait was aBritish protectorate and after it gained its independenceserved to perpetuate the tradition of outside protectioncoupled with a strictly classed labor force.In the early eighteenth century the Kuwaiti tradition ofinviting an outsider to exercise a degree of control wasestablished. Local historians of Kuwait agree that Sabahbin Jabir, leader of the Al Sabah family, was selected(c. 1750) by the heads of ‘Utub families of Kuwait toadminister justice. Even when bin Jabir died in 1762 hisyoungest son, ‘Abd Allah, was selected as leader becauseof his sense of “justice, intelligence and willingness toconsult the group (jama’a).” Stability was, therefore,something that came from outside the community. If theprimary purpose of the state is to provide security forthe inhabitants, the leadership in Kuwait had a cunningway of provided it by the end of the nineteenth century.In 1897 Mubarak Al Sabah successfully used the British,who sent a naval presence to guard the Kuwaiti coastline,to challenge the authority of the Ottoman Empire, whichnominally controlled the region. The British were alsoconcerned about the growing threat of Russian intrusioninto the region and were willing to enter into a moreformal albeit secret security agreement with Kuwait. By1899 Kuwait had become a protectorate with the Anglo-Kuwaiti Bond. Although the arrangement had no legalstanding in international law, there was little the weakOttoman Empire could do to oppose it. In 1900 theGerman Consul-General at Constantinople petitionedMubarak to purchase a site in Kuwait for the terminus ofthe Baghdad Railway. When Mubarak refused, Germanypressed Turkey into taking Kuwait by force. This theBritish would not permit. According to the Ottomangrand vizier Mahmud Shevket Pasha, there was:no solution other than to cede these places to England,if not outright, at least as her sphere of influence orprotectorate…. We would be in conflict with England overtwo desert districts like Kuwait and Qatar. What benefitscould we hope for from these unimportant lands…. it isnecessary for us to remain silent in order to get along withthis state.From the British perspective, if Germany controlled therailway, it might threaten British trading dominance in theregion. Internally Mubarak was playing his cards well. Byseizing the sheikhdom through the murder of members ofhis own Al Sabah family in 1896, Mubarak needed outsidesupport for his claim as leader of Kuwait. Between 1896and 1913, Mubarak not only used the British to legitimizehis own authority, but also to secure Kuwait against anyexternal threat. By 1913 the Ottomans were willing toformalize an agreement with England over the status ofKuwait. In the first months of World War I, the British143

144offered Mubarak recognition as an independent principalityunder their protection if Kuwait would support Britishaspirations in the region. This was an agreement to whichhe readily agreed. Clearly Kuwait was secure under theauspices of the British Empire. The relationship wastested in 1920 when the Saudis demanded that Kuwaitembrace Wahhabism. With a display of British force,it became apparent that the Saudis would not simplyabsorb the state of Kuwait. ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Al Sa’ud wasinformed that “Her Majesty’s Government recognizedthe territory… as definitely appertaining to [Kuwait] andthat is not open to dispute.”On 19 June 1961, protectorate status was abrogated infavor of a new relationship governed by “a spirit of closefriendship” where the British would render assistanceif requested by Kuwait. True to the agreement, SheikhAbdullah Salim Al Sabah requested that Britain sendtroops to Kuwait on 30 June ostensibly to protect thestate from Abd al-Karim Qasim, the leader of Iraq whoannounced, “We shall extend Iraq’s borders to the south ofKuwait…. No individual, whether in Kuwait or outside,has the right to dominate the people of Kuwait for theyare the people of Iraq.” Even the British Foreign Officedecided that “Kuwait is unlikely to remain independent,in the foreseeable future, unless she is militarily protectedand known to be militarily protected, by H.M.G.” Therequested troops came; 7000 British troops by 1 July.Realizing that the continued presence of a large contingentof British troops would make independence look like asham, the troops departed by October of that year butwere replaced with those of the Arab League.As Hijazi points out, Kuwait’s admission into the ArabLeague was based largely on the fact that the Qasim regimewas generally detested in the Middle East and most wantedit removed from Iraq. Kuwait, however, moved quickly toingratiate itself to the League by establishing the KuwaitFund for Arab Economic Development (KFAED) whoseobject was the funding of development projects in otherArab countries. For example, in 1962 Jordan received aKD 7.5 million loan and Sudan received a KD 7 milliongrant. Clearly, Kuwait was attempting to garner outsidesupport and use its oil-based wealth as an instrument offoreign policy in the event that its own territorial integritywas threatened.In 1984 Kuwait’s test as an independent power came asa result of the “tanker war” whereby Iran was targetinggoods destined for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War.Snubbed by the GCC, both the US and the USSR offeredassistance, which guaranteed Kuwait’s integrity. Thislesson that Kuwait would have to look outside the Gulffor protection would be hard-learned in the 1990-1991Iraqi Invasion and Gulf War.ConclusionsThe roots of Kuwaiti dependence can be traced to thecoming of the Al Sabah in the 18th century. Specificallysince the late 19th century this dependence is based onforeign labor as well as protection. It is a city-state in conflictwhich seeks to assert a sense of its own independence byprotecting citizenship through segregation yet remainstotally dependent on that segregated labor force for itswealth as well as outside powers for its protection.Given Kuwait’s size, it will continue to rely on non-GCCstates for protection. Seemingly as long as oil revenuescontinue to fund the Kuwaiti ruling bloc, there will be lessincentive to dramatically overhaul the labor system. Asearly as 1956 the British Foreign Office noted that “Kuwaitis too prosperous and most of the Kuwaitis are too busymaking money to cultivate political passions.” This wasdemonstrated in the aftermath of the Iraqi invasionwhen many of the candidates running for the Kuwaitiparliament in 1992 made a campaign issue of minimizingimported labor only to witness a rapid increase in laborimports shortly after the election. The labor debate is ano-win political issue in Kuwait. As Tétreault point out,any change regarding the importation of workers couldblur the distinction between native bosses and foreignworkers. For example if the number of foreign workerswere reduced, the domestic labor force would undergo adegree of “Kuwaitization.” This might cause a drop inliving standards and even leisure time as Kuwaitis wouldhave to do their own housework, childcare, driving,gardening and other domestic chores that are nowperformed in most families by foreign labor.Only if oil revenue declines might Otto Hintze’sobservation be realized in Kuwait: “What is common toancient and modern constitutions of city-states is based…on the peculiar character of this political organization.Even where the foundation of a city-state was the work ofa monarchical rulership, after it has come into existenceit soon emancipated itself…. When the city-state is fullydeveloped, monarchical rule is abnormal and at besttransitory, brought about by internal factionalism andoutside assistance.”

Ethical Theory and Labor In KuwaitAccording to the Anglo-American tradition, labor practicesin Kuwait seem not to fit with expectations of equityand justice. In traditional Western justice frameworks,justice demands a blind eye to private relations, ethnicity,nationality, religion and gender or irrelevant disability.Justice in this sense is blind, except where justice demandsvision. For example, adverts for jobs should not specifygender, nationality or religion of successful applicantexcept when other overriding considerations are at play.Justice demands impartiality––an objective, distant regardof individuals as respected moral agent, without regard tospecifics of how that moral agency is instantiated in termsof religion, ethnicity, nationality, etc. What is left, whatmay be properly considered, in traditional Western ideasof justice applied to positions in the public sphere, is theapplicant and narrowly defined sets of qualifications.On this scheme, labor practices and laws in Kuwait seemblatant violations of justice. In Kuwait, employmentadverts specify nationality, religion or gender of applicantwhen such is not relevant to the job, and pay schemesrank the pay given to an individual solely on the basisof ethnicity. Moreover, evaluative standards are alsoapplied in discriminatory manners. Such practices failto meet standards set by traditional Western justicetheories, particularly for rules of justice attached topublic, economic sphere. According to Western justicetheories, favoring those of one’s nationality or ethnicityover others is considered racism, favoring one’s friendsand acquaintances over strangers is cronyism and favoringone’s family members over others is nepotism. Racism,cronyism and nepotism are considered unjust, morallydodgy at best, depending on the degree and level ofinstitutionalism.However, some recent theorists, such as Virginia Held,argue for the setting aside of traditional Western moralvalues in favor of stretching ethics of the private sphereto the public realm. In our private ethics, often calledethics of care and concern, our social relations with othersdetermine our appropriate moral actions. In the privaterealm, morality does and should allow for partiality.Ethics of care and concern permit us to act accordingto our level of care and concern for the proximate otherConsider for example, a position which requires a great deal oftact and social grace, such as concierge at a hotel. A person withTurret’s Syndrome might not be eligible for such a position. In sucha position, however, many other disabilities, race, religion or gendershould not be relevant factors.and the level of proximity determines our ethical duties––one is allowed to favor one’s family over one’s friends,favor one’s friends over mere acquaintances and to favoracquaintances over strangers.In Kuwait, employment laws and practices appear toinstitutionalize ethics of care and concern in the publicrealm. In the West, relations are sharply demarcatedbetween social (private) and professional (public)relations. In Kuwait, this demarcation is blurred––onestands, always and primarily, in social (private) relationswith others, as well as professional relations. One’s ethnic,family or friendship affiliations frequently determine one’sprofessional relations with others.This moral prevalence of the social over the professionalrelation, at times, produces a greater equity or level ofcare in regards to some situations. Those arguing forthe adoption of ethics of care in the public realm arguethat such will benefit those frequently marginalized bytraditional justice theories. For instance, the primacyof family relations results in laws that give just andappropriate paid maternal leave for women, whereaswomen in the West often do not receive paid maternalleave. For those with physical disability, the level of careprovided by government subsidy is more generous thanin the West. For employers to stand in a caring relationto employees and vice versa, creates stronger and betterbonds of mutual commitment to see a job well done.However, I do not think those advocating the applicationof care and concern to the public realm would necessarilycare for how Kuwait does so. For instance, concerningnepotism: persons within a specific circle of care shouldall be afforded the same level of care. When a friendor family member enters a more distant circle of care,(that of a professional relation), the level of care must besimilar to all those also standing in a similar relation ofcare . The demand that employers care for versus merelydo duty by employees would demand a more humane,caring approach to those not of one’s own nationality.In traditional ethics theories, in which an abstract moralagent stands in a three-place relation, mediated by duty,to another moral agent. Instead, a carer stands in a twoplacerelation to the cared-for. In order to better developand understand an ethic that applies to and is relevantto Kuwaiti labor-relations, improved understanding andapplication of the model of ethics of care and concernmight improve the discrimination apparent in Kuwaiti145

146labor regulations and enforcement thereof better thanattempting to introduce the Western concept of rights,three-fold relation of moral agents and objective justicemoral standpoints.Labor Market & Media Coverage: A ComparativeAnalysisMedia coverage has been widely used as an indicator of theimportance placed on particular issues in a society. Theseissues have included, inter alia, health care (Brodie, Bradyand Altman, 1998), smoking (Warner, 1985), terrorism(Slone, 2000), substance abuse (Fan and Holway, 1994),the environment (Nissani, 1999) and labor (Puette, 1992;Buerhaus and Staiger, 1999; Pearson and Seyfang, 2001;Martin, 2004).The concept of media coverage is a deceptively complexone. This is in part due to the many variations that existin communications media and their use, the existence ofa wide array of media systems, ownership regimes andphilosophies and a the development of a broad rangeof attitudes towards and use of media by audiences. Theimplications of media coverage have spawned a similarlywide array of perspectives. These perspectives includenotions if the political economy of image productionand consumption (Gamson et al, 1992), the culturalimplications of media coverage (Hall 1980, 1997) andeven invoke Gramsci’s (1971) notions of hegemony andsocial control.The “Hutchins” Commission on the Freedom of thePress in the United States noted that multiple mediaoperating in a free environment create the conditionsfor a wide range of social perspectives to be reflectedand negotiated. (Commission on Freedom of the Press,1947). Yet in many places the press is not free but insteadconstrained by government ownership, official controlsor the threat of sanctions. In most societies the carefulanalyst will probably find the press to be somewherebetween the extremes of complete government ownershipand control on the one hand and complete press freedomon the other hand. The variations are many, as even inthe United States it may be argued that corporate entities,some closely aligned with the government exert undueinfluence on the media (Bagdikian, 1990).Coverage of particular issues may be measured bytraditional means such as “column inches” in newspapers,total time observed in radio or television broadcasts,or numbers of mentions in any medium. Semetko andValkenburg (2000), for example, analyzed 2,601 newspaperstories and 1,522 television news stories for mentions ofparticular themes in relation to European politics. Baxteret al (1985) analyzed a sample of 62 music videos on thenewly launched MTV with a focus on the frequency ofappearance of content centered on sex and violence aswell as government, politics, and US culture.Beyond the totals or frequencies of mentions, researchersalso often investigate tone or bias of coverage. Many mediacoverage studies focus on the content of newscasts butprogram content is an equally rich area of investigation.Most such investigations fall under description ofcontent analysis, though this general method has manyvariations ranging from highly statistical (Berelson 1952;Krippendorf, 1980) to interpretative and qualitativeapproaches (Carney, 1972).Investigations of media coverage are predicated on certainassumptions about media and audiences. Apart from theobvious assumption that audiences actually do consumemedia, such studies can also generally be said to beoperating under the “media effects” paradigm. Within thisparadigm media are thought to have any of a number ofdifferent types of effects on the audience that consumesmedia content. In the early days of communication studiesseveral phenomena indicated that media may actuallyhave very strong direct effects on audiences. Studies ofKate Smith’s War Bond drive in the United States duringWorld War II (Merton, 1946), responses to Orson Welles“War of the Worlds” broadcast and the power of wartimepropaganda all seemed to demonstrate media’s ability todirectly cause audiences to act (Doob, 1935; Lasswell,1927; Lippmann, 1922).Subsequent studies with greater empirical bases indicated thatthese direct effects, while possible, were quite the exception.Normally, media effects were not likely to be so direct orintense. Studies of voting behavior for example, revealedthat the media were not likely to change voter’s minds abouttheir choices of candidates (Lazarsfeld, Berelson & Gaudet,1944). From these beginnings, communications scholarsdeveloped the concept of limited effects or indirect effectsin which media are perceived as having effects in multiplesteps and acting in the context of other social forces suchas interpersonal influences. Thus, Mohammed (2001) foundthat listeners to a radio program on HIV/AIDS preventionwere much more likely to be affected by the messages onthe radio if the ideas were also present and reinforced intheir personal communication networks.

Media in KuwaitKuwait features a mix of government media (ownedand directly controlled) alongside more recently licensedprivate media. The local print environment features bothArabic and English dailies that are privately owned butconstrained by strict rules against criticism of the Emir,the ruling family, Islam and certain government policies.Publications are also subject to what is known as “priorrestraint” as the Ministry of Information requires allpublications to be submitted for approval.Arabic daily newspapers include Al-Rai Ala-Am, Al-Seyassah, Al-Qabas, Al-Watan and Al-Anbas. Kuwait’sEnglish-language dailies include the Kuwait Times,Kuwait Today; and the Arab Times. A number of foreigndaily newspapers are also available in Kuwait.Radio in Kuwait features popular Arabic and Englishmusic stations along with religious stations broadcastingQur’anic recitations. International services such as theVoice of America and the British Broadcasting Service(Arabic Service) are also broadcast for the local market.Local television features state owned Kuwait TV with threechannels in operation and a number of privately ownedtelevision operations – the most significant of these beingthe Al-Rai television station. Satellite television is readilyavailable with a wide range of Arabic channels originatingfrom neighboring countries as well as English languageservices which can be subscribed to locally.Coverage of Labor IssuesWhereas in most countries labor issues include politicaldiscussions of the power of trade unions and the socialinterplay of capital and labor, in Kuwait and other Gulfstates the situation is somewhat different. Lonvga (1999)described the situation in a number of Gulf States withvast visiting labor populations. In many cases, includingKuwait, the expatriate worker population is greater thanthe local native population. The vast majority of theseworkers are unskilled, uneducated laborers and domesticservants from poor developing countries. Major sendingnations include India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and thePhilippines.The discourse of immigrant labor runs deep in Kuwaitpress coverage. This is evident in the fact that news storiesoften refer to the people mentioned by their nationalitiesrather than their names (e.g., a Pakistani was arrested…).Newspapers in particular tend to feature stories ofmaids who are kept in jobs sometimes against their will,sometimes not paid and often abused. However, whilethese stories generate some level of human interest, itis worthwhile to investigate how much attention is givento the underlying social problems leading to such storiesand whether there is any criticism of official policies inthis regard. Pertinent here, as well, is the question of biasand whether news reports favor Kuwaiti employers andKuwaiti policies over human rights and laborer welfare.Relevant, as well, is the level and slant of media coverageof these issues by international media and the images ofKuwait that are portrayed in such coverage.Working to death in Kuwait: Depression and suicideamong expatriate Asian domestic workersIn post World War II Kuwait, the percentage of expatriatesin the population rose steadily with increasing oil revenuesand government development programs dependenton expatriate labor. The Kuwaiti population, of thisperiod, was small with few Kuwaiti experts in the oil andother development industries. Increased oil revenuesand government investment in education produceda generation of Kuwaitis who replaced expatriates atthe highest levels of employment, but their numberscontinued to be relatively small. By 1985, slightly morethan one-half the expatriate workers (52%) were Asianand less than one-half (46%) were Arabs, Africans,Europeans, and United States citizens (Kuwait Census,1993). The Kuwaiti government favored Asian workersover other expatriates because of their lower labor costs.Asian expatriates, likely to return to their countries oforigin, and unable to speak Arabic or to lay claim tooil revenues as Arab nationals, created fewer social andpolitical problems for the Kuwaiti government than non-Kuwaiti Arab laborers (Shah, 1986).The numbers of expatriate workers relative to thenumbers of Kuwaitis, living in Kuwait, has continuedto increase, with the 1997 Kuwait government censusreporting 760,000 Kuwaitis (34%) and 1,450,000 non-Kuwaitis (66%), with Asian workers constituting 67%of the non-Kuwaiti residents. The large numbers ofexpatriate workers, particularly those who have workedmany years in Kuwait, resent social and political economicdiscrimination against them. In response, Kuwaiti citizensview expatriate workers with suspicion, if not hostility.Public debate about a perceived compromise betweenKuwait’s economic needs and its security needs,though pre-dating the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait,further increased mistrust, nationalism and chauvinism,147

148intensifying suspicion and hostility toward expatriatelaborers. The majority of expatriate laborers work forprivate companies or families, making them accessible,non-threatening targets of aggression associated withalcohol and drug abuse, and PTSD and depression, all ofwhich increased in the aftermath of the invasion (Abdel-Khalek, 1996; Abdel-Khalek, 1997; Abdullatif, 1995;Casey and Dinkha 2007; Hai and Liabre 1997; Hadi andLiabre 1998).The suspicion and hostility toward Asian expatriateworkers, newspaper reports of suicides, and ongoingconcern by the U.N. Commission on Human Rights (2001),the U.N. International Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights (1999), and Human Rights Watch (2000) promptedus to assess depression and suicide among expatriateAsian domestic workers in Kuwait. In February of 2007,we reviewed the published literature about depressionand suicide in Kuwait, and decided to keep track of allreports of depression and suicide in Kuwaiti newspapers.According to the World Health Organization, the 2002prevalence rate of suicide in Kuwait was 2.5 males per100,000 people, and 1.4 females per 100,000, low by worldstandards. By 2003, this rate had decreased for males to1.6 per 100,000 and increased for females, more oftendomestic workers, to 1.6 per 100,000 people.Reviewing two to three newspapers a day, English andArabic, our research assistant, Safaa Abdulhamid, found15 reported suicides between February 1, 2007 and May 1,2007, one, a double-suicide in which two women jumpedoff the third floor of a building. Eleven females andfour males committed suicide, with fourteen of workerscommitting suicide from countries in Southeast Asia—Nepal, Indonesia, India, Pakistan and India—and onefrom Ethiopia. Ten were domestic workers; one manwas a farmer; and we have no information about theemployment of the other four. In just three months, therates of suicide in Kuwait for women stand at 2.4 per100,000 people and for men at .7 per 100,000, an increasefor women and decrease for men since the 2003 yearlyrates were published, an indication that suicide rates forboth men and women will show marked increase by theend of this year.Expatriate workers chose particularly lethal methods ofsuicide—six people leapt to their deaths from the roofs ortop floors of buildings and seven hung themselves, whileone man slit his wrist and another took an overdose of anunknown medication. The explanations given in the newsarticles were primarily related to employment:One man was depressed because of a large debt.A woman had not been paid her salary for six months andhad been raped by her employer’s son.Two women jumped out of the third floor of a buildingto escape a kidnapper who tried to force them intoprostitution.A woman claimed to have been suffering unknown familyproblems.The U.N. Commission on Human Rights, Human RightsWatch and other human rights organizations continueto express concern that domestic staff of Asian originin Kuwait are subjected to debt bondage, other illegalemployment practices, passport deprivation, illegalconfinement, rape and physical assault. Few sue theiremployers for abuse, fearing judicial bias and deportation.Those who run away may seek shelter at their country’sembassy pending repatriation or a change in employer.According to Habitat International Coalition (2003), outof an estimated 500,000 domestic workers in Kuwait,approximately 1,000 women per year were in informalshelters run by their countries’ embassies. Others whorun away are kidnapped and forced or recruited intoprostitution.While it is difficult to establish levels of depression orcontributing factors in these cases of suicide, it is clearthat a substantial number of expatriate workers sufferemotional and physical traumas at the hands of theiremployers; Many are literally working to death, findingfew options to debt bondage, rape and physical assault,other than running away or suicide.

ReferencesAbdel-Khalek, A.M., (1996). Factorial Structure of theArabic Children’s Depression Inventory Among KuwaitiSubjects. Psychological Reports, 78, 963-967.Abdel-Khalek, A.M., (1997). A Survey of Fears Associatedwith Iraqi Aggression Among Kuwaiti Children andAdolescents: A Factorial Study 5.7 years After the GulfWar. Psychological Reports, 81, 247-255.Abdel-Khalek, A.M., (1998). Criterion-Related Validity ofthe Arabic Children’s Depression Inventory. PsychologicalReports, 82, 930.Abdullatif, H.I., (1995). Prevalence o Depression AmongMiddle-School Kuwaiti Students Following The Iraqi Invasion.Psychological Reports, 77, 643-649.Casey, C. and Dinkha, J., (2007). Memory and Subjectivityamong Kuwaiti Youths : Child Witnesses of the 1990 IraqiInvasion of Kuwait, The 2nd Middle East and NorthAfrica Regional Conference of Psychology, Amman, Jordan,April 29.Civil and Political Rights Violations in Kuwait : HumanRights Watch’s Submission to the U.N. Human RightsCommittee, Human Rights Watch, July 2, 2000.Hadi, F.A., & Liabre, M.M. (1997). Social Support andPsychological Distress in Kuwaiti Boys and Girls Exposedto the Gulf Crisis. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,3(2), 247-255.Hadi, F.A., & Liabre, M.M. (1998). The Gulf Crisis Experienceof Kuwaiti Children: Psychological and CognitiveFactors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11. 45-56.Initial Report of States Parties due in 1997: Kuwait03/12/99. CCPR/C/120/Add.1 (State Party Report). InternationalCovenant on Civil and Political Rights, UnitedNations, December 3, 1999.Kuwait (2000). www.kuwait-embassy.or.jp/English/economy/main/htmlShah, N. (2000). Relative Success of Male Workers in theHost Country, Kuwait: Does the Channel of MigrationMatter? International Migration Review, 34(1): 59-78.Weissbrodt, D. (2001). Comprehensive Examinationof Thematic Issues Relating to the Elimination of RacialDiscrimination. Preliminary Study on the Rightsof Non-Citizens—Addendum U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/20/Ad.1 (2001). Commission on HumanRights, United Nations.World Health Organization Suicide Rates (2005) www.who.int./entity/mental_health/prevention/suicide_rates/en/Bagdikian, B. (1990). The Media Monopoly.Boston:Beacon.Baxter, R. L., De Riemer, C. Landini, A., Leslie, L. andSingletary, M. W. (1985). A Content Analysis of MusicVideos, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media29(3), 333-340.Berelson, B. (1952). Content Analysis in CommunicationResearch, The FreeBrodie, M., Brady, L. & Altman, D. (1998). Media coverageof managed care: is there a negative bias? Health Affairs,17(1), 9-25.Buerhaus, P. I. & Staiger, D. O. (1999).Trouble in theNurse Labor Market: Recent Trends and Future Outlook,Health Affairs 18(1), 214.Carney, T. F. (1972). Content Analysis: A Technique forSystematic Inference from Communications. London:Batsford.149Robert L. Rothstein, Alliance and Small Powers (New York: Columbia UP, 1968), p. 4-6.R. V. Pillai and Mahendra Kumar, “The Political and Legal Status of Kuwait,” The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol.11, No. 1. (Jan., 1962), p. 109.Technically the Sheikh of Kuwait was subordinate to the Governor of Basra province.Mubarak (r. 1896-1915) had come to power by murdering his two brothers, Muhammad, in power since 1892, and Jarrah, Muhammad’sclose adviser. Threats to Mubarak’s position came from his nephews and enemies who pressured the governor of Basra to force the Turkishgovernment to occupy Kuwait. The Ottomans also wanted to control Kuwait because of its port as well as the planned terminus of the Berlin-to-Baghdad railway. Mubarak’s desire for the British to establish a protectorate in Kuwait relieved this threat. See Tétreault, pp. 570-575.

150Commission on Freedom of the Press (1947). A Free andResponsible Press: A General Report on Mass Communications--Newspapers,Radio, Motion Pictures, Magazines,and Books, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Doob, L. W. (1935). Propaganda, its psychology and technique.New York: Holt.Fan, D. P. & Holway, W. B. (1994). Media coverage ofcocaine and its impact on usage patterns. InternationalJournal of Public Opinion Research 6(2), 139-162.Gamson, W. A., Croteau, D., Hoynes, W. and Sasson, T.(1992). Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality,Annual Review of Sociology 18, 373-393Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks.Ed. Q Hoare and G.N. Smith, New York: InternationalPublishers.Hall, S (Ed.). (1997). Representation: Cultural Representationsand Signifying Practices, London: Sage.Hall, S. (1980). Cultural Studies: two paradigms, Media,Culture and Society 2, 57-72.Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content analysis. Beverly Hills:Sage.Lasswell, H. D. (1927). The theory of political propaganda.American Political ScienceLazarsfeld, P. F., Berelson, B. and Gaudet, H. (1948). ThePeople>s Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mindin a Presidential Campaign. New York: Columbia Univ.PressLippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Macmillan.Longva, A. N. (1999). Keeping Migrant Workers in Check:The Kafala System in the Gulf. Middle East Report, No.211, Trafficking and Transiting: New Perspectives on LaborMigration, 20-22.Martin, C. R. (2004). Framed!: Labor and the CorporateMedia, Ithaca: Cornell University PressMerton, R. K. (1946). Mass Persuasion: The Social Psychologyof a War Bond Drive, New York: Harper andBrothers.Mohammed, S. (2001).Personal Communication Networksand the Effects of an Entertainment-EducationRadio Soap Opera in Tanzania, Journal of Health Communication6(2), 137–154.Nissani, M. (1999). Media coverage of the greenhouse effect,Journal of Population & Environment 21(1), 27-43Pearson, R. & Seyfang, G. (2001). New Hope or FalseDawn?: Voluntary Codes of Conduct, Labour Regulationand Social Policy in a Globalizing World. Global SocialPolicy 1(1), 49-78.Puette, W. J. (1992). Through Jaundiced Eyes: How theMedia View Organized Labor, Ithaca: Cornell UniversityPress.Review, 627–631.Semetko, H. A. & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing Europeanpolitics: a content analysis of press and televisionnews, Journal of Communication 50 (2), 93–109.Slone, M. (2000). Responses to media coverage of terrorism.Journal of Conflict Resolution, 44(4), 508-522.Warner, K. E., (1985). Cigarette advertising and mediacoverage of smoking and health. New England Journalof Medicine, 312(6), 384-8.H. V. F. Winstone and Zahra Freeth, Kuwait: Prosperity and Reality (London: Allen & Unwin, 1972), pp. 57-59.Suhail Shuhaiber, “Social and Political Developments in Kuwiat prior to 1961,” p. 103, in Ben J. Slot ed., Kuwait, The Growth of aHistoric Identity (Kuwait: The Gulf Museum Consultancy Company, 2003), pp. 95-110.This situation still applies today as the bedouin make up a large part of Kuwait’s army and police force. See Shuhaiber, p. 103.Alan Villiers, Sons of Sindbad (London 1940), p. 140. Villers is describing the situation in the 1930s but the same situation applies to thelate 19th century.Mary Ann Tétreault, Interview with Ghanim al-Najjar, Professor of Political Science at Kuwait University, conducted in Kuwait on 13March 1990 as cited in Tétreault p. 578.

Miriam Joyce, Kuwait, 1945-1996. (London: Frank Cass, 1998), p. 3.Sharon Stanton Russell and Muhammad Ali Al-Ramadhan, “Kuwait’s Migration Policy Since the Gulf Crisis” International Journal ofMiddle East Studies, Vol. 26, No. 4. (Nov., 1994), p. 569.Mary Ann Tétreault, Stories of Democracy: Politics and Society in Contemporary Kuwait, (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 49.See Anh Nga Longva, Walls Built on Sand as cited in Tétreault, Stories of Democracy, p. 49.Russell and Al-Ramadhan, p. 570.Ahmad Hijazi, “Kuwait: development from a semitribal, semicolonial society to democracy and sovereignty” The American Journal of ComparativeLaw (Vol. 13, No. 3, Summer 1964), pp. 428-429.Hijazi, p. 432.Anh Nga Longva, “Keeping Migrant Workers in Check, The Kafala System in the Gulf,” Middle East Report (Summer 1999), p. 21.Ministry of Higher Education, Private Universities Council for the State of Kuwait, letter to the American University of Kuwait, (trans.Afaf Al-Bataineh), 21 April 2007.Ibid.American University of Kuwait, Catalog 2004-2005, p. 12.Shafeeq Ghabra, “Message from the President,” AUK Catalog 2004-2005, p. 10; The seeming contradiction between the mission and valuesof an institution and Kuwaiti law are not unique. It affects many institutions and organizations that adhere to the western liberal tradition.According to the Kuwait Times, “Kuwait’s publication laws were amended in 2006 allowing for more publications to be authorized, but notsubstantially changing laws which enable journalists to be easily sued for slander. Journalists’ opinions regarding the controversial new laws werefor the most part tinged with disappointment and left wanting for greater freedom of speech.” Ahmad Al-Khaled, “Kuwait freedom of speechas affected by defamation laws,” Kuwait Times (7 June 2007), www.kuwaittimes.net.151Longva, “Keeping Migrant Workers in Check,” p. 21.United Nations Development Programme, Human Rights Country Profile, Democratic Governance, Human Rights, Kuwait. www.pogar.org.Longva, “Keeping Migrant Workers in Check,” p. 21.Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, “Country Reports on Human Rights Practices-2005” U.S. State Department, www.state.gov/g/drl/.Sheikh Saad Al-Abdallah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, speech on the government agenda, reported in Al-Qabas (trans. Muhammad Ali Al-Ramadhan),10 July 1991.Joel S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton, N.J.:Princeton university Press, 1988); Mary Ann Tétreault, “Autonomy, necessity, and the small state: ruling Kuwait in the twentieth century,”International Organization (45, 4, Autumn 1991), p. 566.Suhail Shuhaiber, “Social and Political Developments in Kuwiat prior to 1961,” pp. 99-100, see esp. note #6. in Ben J. Slot ed., Kuwait,The Growth of a Historic Identity (Kuwait: The Gulf Museum Consultancy Company, 2003), pp. 95-110.Pillai and Kumar, p. 110.This bond is also called the “Exclusive Agreement” by some. See Pillai and Kumar, p. 110; C. H. Aitchison, A Colleciton of Treaties,Engagements and Sanads relating to India and Neighbouring Countries (1923), Vol. XI, No. XXXVI.

Even the viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, noted that the Turks could ignore any agreement between Kuwait and England on legal grounds. SeeFeroz Ahmad, “A Note of the International Status of Kuwait before November 1914,” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies,Vol. 24, No. 1. (Feb., 1992), p. 183.Mahmut Sevket Pasa, Mahmut Sevket Pasa’nin Gunlugu (Mahmud Shevket Pasha’s Diary) (Istanbul, 1988), pp. 45, 152.Foreign Office (1928) “Historical summary of events in territories of the ottoman Empire, Persia and Arabia affecting the British position inthe Persian Gulf, 1907-1928” (PG 13), p. 80. In fact an 1915 treaty between Britain and the Saudi leadership called on them “to refrainfrom all aggression on, or interference with the territories of Kuwait…who are under the protection of the British government, and who havetreaty relations with the said Government.”Abd al-Karim Qasim, statement made during a press conference on 25 June 1961 as cited by Ralph Hewins in A Golden Dream: The Mircale ofKuwait (London: W. H. Allen, 1963), p. 285Minutes by A. RE. Walmsley, 8 Sept 1959, FO 371/140084.Simon C. Smith, Kuwait, 1950-1965: Britain, the al-Sabah, and Oil (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 120.Hijzai, p. 435.Smith, pp. 126-128.British Foreign Office Minutes by C. T. E. Ewart-Biggs, 18 April 1956, FO 371/120550.Mary Ann Tétreault, Stories of Democracy, p. 154-155.152Otto Hintze, “The Formation of States and Constitutional Development: A Study in History and Politics,” in Felix Gilbert, ed., TheHistorical Essays of Otto Hintze (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 163.

Contributors:Shareefa Abdullah Al-AdwaniAssistant to the PresidentAmerican University of Kuwait.sadwani@auk.edu.kwDr. Athmar Al-SalemAssistant Professor of ManagementAmerican University of Kuwaitaalsalem@auk.edu.kwDr. Mohsen A. BagniedAssociate ProfessorMarketing, Economics and ManagementAmerican University of Kuwaitmbagnied@auk.edu.kwDr. M. Nauman Farooqi, Ph.DAssociate ProfessorDepartment of CommerceMount Allison University144 Main Street, Sackville, New BrunswickCANADA E4L 1A7Dr. Abigail GrayVisiting Associate Professor of Business and CommunicationAmerican University of Kuwaitagray@auk.edu.kwDavid LevickAustralian College of Kuwaitd.levick@ackonline.comDr. Conerly CaseyAnthropology and Psychology ProgramsAmerican University of Kuwaitccasey@auk.edu.kwDr. Mourad DakhliAssistant Professor of ManagementDivision of Business & EconomicsAmerican University of Kuwaitmdakhli@auk.edu.kwWade DanisGeorgia State UniversityAtlanta, GA 30303-3083Email: wdanis@gsu.eduDr. Juliet DinkhaPsychology ProgramAmerican University of Kuwaitjdinkha@auk.edu.kwShaheed Mohammed, Ph.DAssociate Professor Communicationssmohammed@auk.edu.kwMark OlsonAssistant Professor of SociologyGulf University of Science and TechnologyOlson.m@gust.edu.kwRalph PalliamAssistant Professor: FinanceAmerican University of Kuwaitrpalliam@auk.edu.kwChristopher PiconeAustralian College of Kuwaitchristopher.picone@ack.edu.kw153

Christine PiconeAustralian College of KuwaitChristine.picone@ack.edu.kwRosemary Polegato, MBA, PhDProfessorCommerce DepartmentMount Allison Universitynfarooqi@auk.edu.kwMary Queen, Ph.DAssociate Professor English and Rhetoricmquuen@auk,edu.kwPhilbert SureshGulf University of Science and TechnologyInstructor of Logisticsp.suresh@gust.edu.kw154

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