Electric Battery

8/15/22, 12:50 PM Electric battery - Wikipedia
Electric battery
An electric battery is a source of electric power consisting
of one or more electrochemical cells with external
Battery
connections[1] for powering electrical devices.
When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is

the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.[2] The
terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will
flow through an external electric circuit to the positive
terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric
load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to
lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is
delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy. Various cells and batteries (top left to
Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a
bottom right): two AA, one D, one
device composed of multiple cells; however, the usage has
handheld ham radio battery, two 9-volt
evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.[3]
(PP3), two AAA, one C, one camcorder
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once battery, one cordless phone battery
and discarded, as the electrode materials are irreversibly Type Power source
changed during discharge; a common example is the
Working Electrochemical reactions,
alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of
portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) principle Electromotive force
batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times First 1800s
using an applied electric current; the original composition of production
the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples
Electronic symbol
include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-
ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops
and mobile phones.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature

cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to, at the
largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that The symbol for a battery in a circuit
provide standby or emergency power for telephone diagram. It originated as a schematic
exchanges and computer data centers. drawing of the earliest type of battery, a
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit voltaic pile.
mass) than common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles,
this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting electrical energy to
mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.
Contents
History
Invention
Future
Chemistry and principles
Types
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_battery 1/20
Primary and secondary batteries

Composition
Consumer and industrial grades
Combination and management
Sizes
Comparison
Performance, capacity and discharge
Lifespan
Hazards
Legislation and regulation
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
History
Invention
The Baghdad Battery (c. 150 BC—650

AD) has been theorised to have been a
device that held electric current, but
this is inconclusive.
Benjamin Franklin first used the term

"battery" in 1749 when he was doing
experiments with electricity using a set
of linked Leyden jar capacitors. [4]
Franklin grouped a number of the jars
into what he described as a "battery",
using the military term for weapons
functioning together. [5] By multiplying
the number of holding vessels, a
stronger charge could be stored, and
more power would be available on
discharge.
A voltaic pile, the first Italian physicist Alessandro Volta
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built battery demonstrating his pile to French
and described the first electrochemical emperor Napoleon Bonaparte
battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800.[6] This
was a stack of copper and zinc plates,
separated by brine-soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable
length of time. Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought
that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,[7] and that the associated corrosion effects at
the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as
Michael Faraday showed in 1834.[8]
Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes,[9] in practice their voltages
fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The Daniell cell,
invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first practical source of
electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source for
electrical telegraph networks.[10] It consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in
which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc
electrode.[11]
These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled
correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially
dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the end of
the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with
a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.[12]
Batteries in vacuum tubes historically used a wet cell for the "A" battery (to provide power to the
filament) and a dry cell for the "B" battery (to provide the plate voltage).
Future
Between 2010 and 2018, annual battery demand grew by 30%, reaching a total of 180 Gwh in 2018.
Conservatively, the growth rate is expected to be maintained at an estimated 25%, culminating in
demand reaching 2600 Gwh in 2030. In addition, cost reductions are expected to further increase
the demand to as much as 3562 GwH.[13]
Important reasons for this high rate of growth of the electric battery industry include the
electrification of transport,[13] and large-scale deployment in electricity grids,[13] supported by
anthropogenic climate change-driven moves away from fossil-fuel combusted energy sources to
cleaner, renewable sources, and more stringent emission regimes.
Distributed electric batteries, such as those used in battery electric vehicles (vehicle-to-grid), and in
home energy storage, with smart metering and that are connected to smart grids for demand
response, are active participants in smart power supply grids.[14]
New methods of reuse, such as
echelon use of partly-used batteries, add to the overall utility of electric batteries, reduce energy
storage costs, and also reduce pollution/emission impacts due to longer lives. In echelon use of
batteries, vehicle electric batteries that have their battery capacity reduced to less than 80%, usually
after service of 5–8 years, are repurposed for use as backup supply or for renewable energy storage
systems.[15]
Grid scale energy storage envisages the large-scale use of batteries to collect and store energy from
the grid or a power plant and then discharge that energy at a later time to provide electricity or
other grid services when needed. Grid scale energy storage (either turnkey or distributed) are
important components of smart power supply grids.[16]
Chemistry and principles

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical energy
released is the difference in the cohesive[17] or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules
undergoing the electrochemical reaction. For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are
high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals.
Batteries are designed so that the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only when
electrons move through the external part of the circuit.
A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell

consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive
electrolyte containing metal cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which
anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell
includes electrolyte and the positive electrode, to which cations
(positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are reduced
(electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal atoms are
oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode.[18] Some cells
use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is A voltaic cell for demonstration
used to prevent mixing of the electrolytes while allowing ions to purposes. In this example the two
flow between half-cells to complete the electrical circuit. half-cells are linked by a salt bridge
that permits the transfer of ions.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in
volts) relative to a standard. The net emf of the cell is the
difference between the emfs of its half-cells.[19] Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and , then
the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction
potentials of the half-reactions.[20]
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage
(difference) and is measured in volts.[21] The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor
discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal
resistance,[22] the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the
open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit
voltage.[23] An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal
voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and produce a
charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would have performed 1.5 joules of work.[21]
In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge[22] and the open-circuit voltage
also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting
graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal
arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical
reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries,
but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different
chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.[24] The high electrochemical potential
changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.[25]
Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the
electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes
made of different metals into a lemon,[26] potato,[27] etc. and generate small amounts of electricity.
A voltaic pile can be made from two coins (such as a nickel and a penny) and a piece of paper towel
dipped in salt water. Such a pile generates a very low voltage but, when many are stacked in series,
they can replace normal batteries for a short time.[28]
Types
Primary and secondary batteries
Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:
Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of

energy then discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not
reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply of
reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing
current and is useless.[29]
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their
chemical reactions reversed by applying electric current to the cell.
This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they can be
used, recharged, and used again multiple times.[30]
Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph

circuits, were restored to operation by replacing the electrodes.[31]
Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation
of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately

on assembly. These are most commonly used in portable devices that
have low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well
away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and
communication circuits where other electric power is only
intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably
recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and
active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery
manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary
cells.[32] In general, these have higher energy densities than
rechargeable batteries,[33] but disposable batteries do not fare well
under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω).
Common types of disposable batteries include zinc–carbon batteries
and alkaline batteries.
Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable

batteries, must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled
with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries
are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the
chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply
the appropriate current are called chargers. The oldest form of
From top to bottom: a large
rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely used in
4.5-volt 3R12 battery, a D
automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid
Cell, a C cell, an AA cell, an
electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept
AAA cell, an AAAA cell, an
upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the
A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3
hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is battery, and a pair of button
relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its cells (CR2032 and LR44)
low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it
common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more
important than weight and handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which
can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.
Composition
Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and
designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.[34]
A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell,
since the liquid covers all internal parts or vented cell, since gases
produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells were a
precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for
electrochemistry. They can be built with common laboratory supplies,
such as beakers, for demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work.
A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cell is important
in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-
rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical
primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as open-top glass
jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell,
Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The
Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are
still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for
Line art drawing of a dry
switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power cell: 1. brass cap, 2. plastic
supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used seal, 3. expansion space, 4.
instead. These applications commonly use lead–acid or nickel– porous cardboard, 5. zinc
cadmium cells. Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries can, 6. carbon rod, 7.
that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures chemical mixture
and must be well insulated to retain heat.
A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike a wet
cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it
suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass
containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage.
Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development
of the gel battery. A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the dry
Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use
the same zinc–manganese dioxide combination). A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode,
usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The
electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space
between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium
chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium
chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.
A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long
period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding
electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for an
electronic artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun. The acceleration breaks a
capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve batteries are
usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A water-
activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on
immersion in water.
On 28 February 2017, the University of Texas at Austin issued a press release about a new type of
solid-state battery, developed by a team led by lithium-ion battery inventor John Goodenough,
"that could lead to safer, faster-charging, longer-lasting rechargeable batteries for handheld mobile
devices, electric cars and stationary energy storage".[35] The solid-state battery is also said to have
"three times the energy density", increasing its useful life in electric vehicles, for example. It should
also be more ecologically sound since the technology uses less expensive, earth-friendly materials
such as sodium extracted from seawater. They also have much longer life.[36]
Sony has developed a biological battery that generates electricity from sugar in a way that is similar
to the processes observed in living organisms. The battery generates electricity through the use of
enzymes that break down carbohydrates.[37]
The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive industry
as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid
electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life.[38] VRLA batteries immobilize
the electrolyte. The two types are:
Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in
applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of increasing
power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride
(NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the dry cell
rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but
NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.
In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL, which
allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector, nanoball batteries that allow for a
discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-
charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low self-
discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.
Lithium–sulfur batteries were used on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.[39]
Consumer and industrial grades
Batteries of all types are manufactured in consumer and industrial grades. Costlier industrial-grade
batteries may use chemistries that provide higher power-to-size ratio, have lower self-discharge and
hence longer life when not in use, more resistance to leakage and, for example, ability to handle the
high temperature and humidity associated with medical autoclave sterilization.[40]
Combination and management
Standard-format batteries are inserted into battery holder in the device that uses them. When a
device does not uses standard-format batteries, they are typically combined into a custom battery
pack which holds multiple batteries in addition to features such as a battery management system
and battery isolator which ensure that the batteries within are charged and discharged evenly.
Sizes
Primary batteries readily available to consumers range from tiny button cells used for electric
watches, to the No. 6 cell used for signal circuits or other long duration applications. Secondary
cells are made in very large sizes; very large batteries can power a submarine or stabilize an
electrical grid and help level out peak loads.
As of 2017, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by Tesla. It can store 129
MWh.[41] A battery in Hebei Province, China, which can store 36 MWh of electricity was built in
2013 at a cost of $500 million.[42] Another large battery, composed of Ni–Cd cells, was in
Fairbanks, Alaska. It covered 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft)—bigger than a football pitch—and
weighed 1,300 tonnes. It was manufactured by ABB to provide backup power in the event of a
blackout. The battery can provide 40 MW of power for up to seven minutes.[43] Sodium–sulfur
batteries have been used to store wind power.[44] A 4.4 MWh battery system that can deliver 11 MW
for 25 minutes stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii.[45]
Comparison
Many important cell properties, such as voltage, energy density, flammability, available cell
constructions, operating temperature range and shelf life, are dictated by battery chemistry.[46]
Primary batteries
Shelf life
Max. Nominal
Specific at 25 °C,
Anode Cathode voltage, voltage,
Chemistry energy Elaboration 80%
(−) (+) theoretical practical
(kJ/kg) capacity
(V) (V)
(months)
Zinc–carbon Zn C 1.6 1.2 130 Inexpensive. 18
Also known as
Zinc–chloride 1.5 "heavy-duty",
inexpensive.
Moderate
Alkaline energy
(zinc– MnO2 density. Good
Zn 1.5 1.15 400-590 30
manganese for high- and
dioxide) low-drain
uses.
Nickel
Moderate
oxyhydroxide
energy
(zinc–
1.7 density. Good
manganese
for high drain
dioxide/nickel
uses.
oxyhydroxide)
No longer
manufactured.
Lithium
Replaced by
(lithium–
Li CuO 1.7 silver oxide
copper oxide)
(IEC-type
Li–CuO
"SR")
batteries.
Lithium Expensive.
(lithium–iron Used in 'plus'
disulfide)
Li FeS2 1.8 1.5 1070 337[47]
or 'extra'
LiFeS2 batteries.
Expensive.
Used only in
high-drain
Lithium devices or for
(lithium– long shelf-life
manganese MnO2 due to very
Li 3.0 830–1010
dioxide) low rate of
LiMnO2 self-discharge.
'Lithium' alone
usually refers
to this type of
chemistry.
Lithium
(lithium–
carbon Li (CF)n 3.6 3.0 120
fluoride) Li–
(CF)n
Lithium
(lithium–
chromium Li CrO2 3.8 3.0 108
oxide) Li–
CrO2
Lithium
(lithium- Li22Si5
silicon)
Shelf life
Max. Nominal
Specific at 25 °C,
Anode Cathode voltage, voltage,
Chemistry energy Elaboration 80%
(−) (+) theoretical practical
(kJ/kg) capacity
(V) (V)
(months)
High-drain
and constant
voltage.
Mercury Banned in
Zn HgO 1.34 1.2 36
oxide most countries
because of
health
concerns.
Used mostly
Zinc–air Zn O2 1.6 1.1 1590[48] in hearing
aids.
Very long life.
Very low
Zamboni pile Zn Ag or Au 0.8 >2,000
(nanoamp,
nA) current
Very
expensive.
Silver-oxide Ag2O Used only
Zn 1.85 1.5 470 30
(silver–zinc) commercially
in 'button'
cells.
Magnesium Mg MnO2 2.0 1.5 40
Secondary batteries
Specific Energy
Cell
Chemistry energy density Comments
voltage
(kJ/kg) (kJ/liter)
Inexpensive. High-/low-drain, moderate energy density.
Can withstand very high discharge rates with virtually no
NiCd 1.2 140 loss of capacity. Moderate rate of self-discharge.
Environmental hazard due to Cadmium, use now virtually
prohibited in Europe.
Moderately expensive. Moderate energy density. Moderate
rate of self-discharge. Higher discharge rates result in
Lead–acid 2.1 140
considerable loss of capacity. Environmental hazard due to
Lead. Common use: automobile batteries
Inexpensive. Performs better than alkaline batteries in
higher drain devices. Traditional chemistry has high energy
density, but also a high rate of self-discharge. Newer
NiMH 1.2 360
chemistry has low self-discharge rate, but also a ~25%
lower energy density.
Used in some cars.

Moderately inexpensive. High drain device suitable. Low
self-discharge rate. Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells
NiZn 1.6 360 than other secondary cells. No toxic components. Newly
introduced to the market (2009). Has not yet established a
track record. Limited size availability.
Smaller volume than equivalent Li-ion. Extremely
expensive due to silver. Very high energy density. Very
high drain capable. For many years considered obsolete
due to high silver prices. Cell suffers from oxidation if
unused. Reactions are not fully understood. Terminal
AgZn 1.86 1.5 460 voltage very stable but suddenly drops to 1.5 volts at 70–
80% charge (believed to be due to presence of both
argentous and argentic oxide in positive plate; one is
consumed first). Has been used in lieu of primary battery
(moon buggy). Is being developed once again as a
replacement for Li-ion.
LiFePO4 3.3 3.0 360 790 Lithium-Iron-Phosphate chemistry.
Very expensive. Very high energy density. Not usually

available in "common" battery sizes. Lithium polymer
battery is common in laptop computers, digital cameras,
camcorders, and cellphones. Very low rate of self-
Lithium ion 3.6 460
discharge. Terminal voltage varies from 4.2 to 3.0 volts
during discharge. Volatile: Chance of explosion if short-
circuited, allowed to overheat, or not manufactured with
rigorous quality standards.
Performance, capacity and discharge

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to
many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a
battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery
warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.
A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated voltage. The more
electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has less capacity than a
larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit voltage.[49]
Capacity is measured in units such as amp-hour (A·h). The rated capacity of a battery is usually
expressed as the product of 20 hours multiplied by the current that a new battery can consistently
supply for 20 hours at 68 °F (20 °C), while remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell.
For example, a battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour
period at room temperature. The fraction of the stored charge that a
battery can deliver depends on multiple factors, including battery
chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the
required terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature
and other factors.[49]
The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity.[50] The
relationship between current, discharge time and capacity for a lead
acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of current values) by
Peukert's law:
A device to check battery

voltage
where
is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.

is the current drawn from battery (A).
is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
is a constant around 1.3.
Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the capacity
lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side reactions that consume charge
carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge. Further,
when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing capacity for subsequent
discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is lost and the battery stops producing
power. Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte
cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers
more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate. Installing batteries with varying A·h ratings
does not affect device operation (although it may affect the operation interval) rated for a specific
voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital cameras can reduce total
capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-
hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.
The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged. It is defined as
the current through the battery divided by the theoretical current draw under which the battery
would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour.[51] It has the units h−1. Because of internal
resistance loss and the chemical processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated
capacity in only one hour. Typically, maximum capacity is found at a low C-rate, and charging or
discharging at a higher C-rate reduces the usable life and capacity of a battery. Manufacturers often
publish datasheets with graphs showing capacity versus C-rate curves. C-rate is also used as a rating
on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a battery can safely deliver in a circuit. Standards
for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity and charge cycles over a 4-hour (0.25C), 8
hour (0.125C) or longer discharge time. Types intended for special purposes, such as in a computer
uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by manufacturers for discharge periods much less than
one hour (1C) but may suffer from limited cycle life.

As of 2012, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) battery technology was the fastest-
charging/discharging, fully discharging in 10–20 seconds.[52]
Lifespan
Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings
for rechargeable batteries but only one for non-chargeables. For
rechargeables, it can mean either the length of time a device can
run on a fully charged battery or the number of
charge/discharge cycles possible before the cells fail to operate
satisfactorily. For a non-rechargeable these two lives are equal
since the cells last for only one cycle by definition. (The term
shelf life is used to describe how long a battery will retain its
performance between manufacture and use.) Available capacity
of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast
to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812,
offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge,
although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range. The
Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost continuously since
1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni
piles.
Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their An analog camcorder [lithium ion]
original charge per year when stored at room temperature (20– battery
30 °C).[53] This is known as the "self-discharge" rate, and is due
to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that occur
within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries
stored at lower temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing. Old rechargeable
batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based
batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24
hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge
nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge
rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).
The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and
discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume, further limiting the
number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged
when purchased, and must be charged before first use.[54] Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be
used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.[55]
Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because
electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the
electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be charged some 1,000 times,
whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles.[56] NiCd batteries
tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond
usable values. Fast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.[56] If a
charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely, damaging it.[57]
NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called
"memory effect".[58] The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar
in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.[59]
Automotive lead–acid rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock, and
temperature range. Because of these stresses and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive
batteries last beyond six years of regular use.[60] Automotive starting (SLI: Starting, Lighting, Ignition)
batteries have many thin plates to maximize current. In general, the thicker the plates the longer
the life. They are typically discharged only slightly before recharge. "Deep-cycle" lead–acid batteries
such as those used in electric golf carts have much thicker plates to extend longevity.[61] The main
benefit of the lead–acid battery is its low cost; its main drawbacks are large size and weight for a
given capacity and voltage. Lead–acid batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their
capacity,[62] because internal resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged.
Deep-cycle lead–acid systems often use a low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off
switch to prevent the type of damage that will shorten the battery's life.[63]
Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a refrigerator or
freezer, which slows the side reactions. Such storage can extend the life of alkaline batteries by
about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much longer, depending upon type.[64] To
reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room temperature; discharging an
alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0 °C is only half as efficient as at 20 °C.[33] Alkaline battery
manufacturers such as Duracell do not recommend refrigerating batteries.[32]
Hazards
A battery explosion is generally caused by misuse or
malfunction, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-
rechargeable) battery, or a short circuit.
When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive

gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster
than it can escape from within the battery (e.g. through a built-
in vent), leading to pressure build-up and eventual bursting of
the battery case. In extreme cases, battery chemicals may spray
violently from the casing and cause injury. An expert summary
of the problem indicates that this type uses "liquid electrolytes
to transport lithium ions between the anode and the cathode. If
a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit,
leading to explosions and fires".[65][66] Car batteries are most
likely to explode when a short circuit generates very large
currents. Such batteries produce hydrogen, which is very Battery after explosion
explosive, when they are overcharged (because of electrolysis of
the water in the electrolyte). During normal use, the amount of
overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly. However,
when "jump starting" a car, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of
hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, e.g. when disconnecting a jumper
cable.
Overcharging (attempting to charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity) can also lead to a
battery explosion, in addition to leakage or irreversible damage. It may also cause damage to the
charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used.
Disposing of a battery via incineration may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed
case.
Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If

leakage occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the
chemicals released may be dangerous. For example, disposable
batteries often use a zinc "can" both as a reactant and as the
container to hold the other reagents. If this kind of battery is
over-discharged, the reagents can emerge through the
cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the container.
The active chemical leakage can then damage or disable the
equipment that the batteries power. For this reason, many Leak-damaged alkaline battery
electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the batteries from devices that will not be
used for extended periods of time.
Many types of batteries employ toxic materials such as lead, mercury, and cadmium as an electrode
or electrolyte. When each battery reaches end of life it must be disposed of to prevent
environmental damage.[67] Batteries are one form of electronic waste (e-waste). E-waste recycling
services recover toxic substances, which can then be used for new batteries.[68] Of the nearly three
billion batteries purchased annually in the United States, about 179,000 tons end up in landfills
across the country.[69]
Batteries may be harmful or fatal if swallowed.[70] Small button cells can be swallowed, in
particular by young children. While in the digestive tract, the battery's electrical discharge may lead
to tissue damage;[71] such damage is occasionally serious and can lead to death. Ingested disk
batteries do not usually cause problems unless they become lodged in the gastrointestinal tract. The
most common place for disk batteries to become lodged is the esophagus, resulting in clinical
sequelae. Batteries that successfully traverse the esophagus are unlikely to lodge elsewhere. The
likelihood that a disk battery will lodge in the esophagus is a function of the patient's age and
battery size. Disk batteries of 16 mm have become lodged in the esophagi of 2 children younger
than 1 year. Older children do not have problems with batteries smaller than 21–23 mm.
Liquefaction necrosis may occur because sodium hydroxide is generated by the current produced by
the battery (usually at the anode). Perforation has occurred as rapidly as 6 hours after ingestion.[72]
Legislation and regulation

Legislation around electric batteries includes such topics as safe disposal and recycling.
In the United States, the Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996
banned the sale of mercury-containing batteries, enacted uniform labeling requirements for
rechargeable batteries and required that rechargeable batteries be easily removable.[73] California
and New York City prohibit the disposal of rechargeable batteries in solid waste.[74][75] The
rechargeable battery industry operates nationwide recycling programs in the United States and
Canada, with dropoff points at local retailers.[76]
The Battery Directive of the European Union has similar requirements, in addition to requiring
increased recycling of batteries and promoting research on improved battery recycling methods.[77]
In accordance with this directive all batteries to be sold within the EU must be marked with the
"collection symbol" (a crossed-out wheeled bin). This must cover at least 3% of the surface of
prismatic batteries and 1.5% of the surface of cylindrical batteries. All packaging must be marked
likewise.[78]
In response to reported accidents and failures, occasionally ignition or explosion, recalls of devices
using lithium-ion batteries have become more common in recent years.[79][80]
See also
Battery simulator
Nanowire battery
Search for the Super Battery
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External links
Media related to Electric batteries at Wikimedia Commons
Batteries (https://curlie.org/Business/Electronics_and_Electrical/Power_Supplies/Batteries/) at
Curlie
Non-rechargeable batteries (https://web.archive.org/web/20131022104620/http://electrochem.c
wru.edu/encycl/art-b02-batt-nonr.htm)
HowStuffWorks: How batteries work (http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/battery.htm)
Other Battery Cell Types (http://depts.washington.edu/matseed/batteries/MSE/classification.htm
l)
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Batteries" (http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/batteri
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The Physics arXiv Blog (17 August 2013). "First Atomic Level Simulation of a Whole Battery |
MIT Technology Review" (http://www.technologyreview.com/view/518446/first-atomic-level-simu
lation-of-a-whole-battery). Technologyreview.com. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
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8/15/22, 12:50 PM Electric battery - Wikipedia

When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature

Primary and secondary batteries

The Baghdad Battery (c. 150 BC—650

Benjamin Franklin first used the term

Chemistry and principles

A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell

Primary and secondary batteries

Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:

Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph

Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately

Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

Consumer and industrial grades

Combination and management

Magnesium Mg MnO2 2.0 1.5 40

Used in some cars.

Very expensive. Very high energy density. Not usually

Performance, capacity and discharge

A device to check battery

is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.

When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive

Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If

Legislation and regulation

p. Glossary 3. ISBN 978-0-08-049995-6. Retrieved 18 March 2016.

22. Knight 976.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_battery&oldid=1101705110"

This page was last edited on 1 August 2022, at 11:29 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

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